Economic Theory and Application Essay

1. The following graph: (not able to recreate, but in the text), shows a firm with a kinked demand curve a. What assumption lies behind the shape of this demand curve? The kinked demand curve assumes that other firms will follow price decreases and will not follow price increases. For instance, in an oligopoly model, based on two demand curves that assumes that other firms will not match a firm’s price increases, but will match its price increases. The kinked demand curve model of oligopoly implies that oligopoly prices tend to be â€Å"sticky† and do not change as much as they would in other market structures given the assumptions that a firm is making about the behavior of its rival firms. Kinked demand was an initial attempt to explain sticky prices. It is an economic theory regarding oligopoly and monopolistic competition. b. Identify the firm’s profit-maximizing output and price. In Figure 9.1 in the textbook, the firm’s profit-maximizing output and price is when there is an increase in price over the average marginal cost (the difference between p1 and the point vertically down from there that cuts the MC curve) Profit maximization is the process by which a firm determines the price and output level that returns the greatest profit. There are several approaches to this definition. The total revenue total cost method relies on the fact that profit equals revenue minus cost, and the marginal revenue – marginal cost method is based on the fact that total profit in a perfectly competitive market reaches its maximum point where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. c. Use the graph to explain why the firm’s price is likely to remain the same, even if marginal costs change. If marginal costs increase or decrease within the discontinuous range of the marginal revenue curve, the point at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost will remain the same. Thus, price and output do not change, even though costs (and profits) are different. Marginal cost is the additional cost of producing an additional unit of output. Marginal cost shows the changes in costs as output changes. Total variable costs change as the level of output varies but total fixed costs are constant regardless the level of output. Therefore, total fixed costs do not influence the marginal costs of production and actually average fixed costs decreases continuously as more output is produced. Because total fixed cost is constant, average fixed cost must decline as output increases ad spreads the total fixed cost is constant over a larger number of units of output. Both average variable cost and average cost first decrease and then increase. 2. Some games of strategy are cooperative. One example is deciding which side of the road to drive on. It doesn’t matter which side it is, as long as everyone chooses the same side. Otherwise, everyone may get hurt.

The BMW M5 has the capacity

The BMW M5 has the capacity of a sedan and it excels like a sports car in terms of performance.The car has spacious seats and effective temperature control system to ensure a comfortable ride. Independent suspension for all the four wheels improves overall handling of the car. The M5 does not slack behind in the entertainment department either and offers a host of features including a high-end music system and high-definition radio. The car is very stable under almost any road condition including slippery ice roads, sandy surfaces and rain-slicked roads using its dynamic stability control system.The car also has an on-board GPS navigation system and recognizes voice commands from the driver. BMW lays great emphasis on safety; its cars are very sturdily built with state-of-the-art safety features such as head protection system, automatic-locking retractors for seatbelts, and side airbags to provide additional protection.The M5 also has an Impact sensor to automatically turn off the ig nition and fuel supply, and switches on the emergency lights in the event of an accident. In terms of after-sales service, BMW guarantees free maintenance for either four years or fifty thousand miles. This service is inclusive of standard servicing as well as free replacement of items that wear off. BMW has also recently introduced a tele-service called BMW Safety Plan which enables the car to directly contact the service center when it needs service.BMW is a German automobile manufacturer which has a rich tradition of building reliable cars and has earned worldwide recognition among general consumers as well as motorcar enthusiasts. The BMW M5 is a brand family. It falls under the ‘Motor vehicles and car bodies’ industry category and its corresponding SIC code is 3711 (Business & Company Resource Center).DaimlerChrysler, Ford, Volkswagen, General Motors, Ducati, Fiat, Harley-Davidson, Honda, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Mazda are some of the competitors of BMW in thi s category. Following are some of the factors that make BMW a compelling choice for any car buyer,

Should the government provide free public education to children of Essay - 1

Should the government provide free public education to children of illegal immigrants - Essay Example Arguably, every young individual has dreams for a better future, and this can only be achieved from education. In addition, the schools are aimed at prepare an active participant in the future of American society when such attain maturity. Though illegally within the country, the government should understand that they are part of the country. As such, illegal immigrants should be provided with knowledge and skills to avoid making them dependants. They might be a vital asset in the future. If ignored, the immigrants may even cause problems to the country such as committing crimes. These crimes may even affect their home countries to extend of destroying the relationship between the countries (Grandrath, 2011). A scholar once stated that if a society governance values individuals, believes in both education and children, then it should be ready to take care and educate each child in its area of jurisdiction. In American government’s case as a society, it should then be ready to fund the education of these illegal immigrants irrespective of their race and origin to better individual’s and the country’s future (Grandrath, 2011). Education usually acts as stepping-stone for many people and denial to the right for education may lead to destruction of people’s goals. ... Some may be talented in many aspects of benefit to the country. They maybe even grow up to become great people in power and bring a change in government, coming up with policies and rights favoring each person in that country. Obama tries to sensitize the people on t he importance of each person in the nation. From the president’s sensitization speech, we get to know how innocent and important these children are to the nation. Therefore, ignoring them will lead to many problems to the entire nation. For instance, their lives will be affected. Since the immigrants are eventually part of the United States nation, Lack of education translates to unemployment, which means the rate of poverty will increase. This eventually affects the lives of most parts of the nation. Some of the effects caused by poverty may include prostitution, which is a social crime (Grandrath, 2011). From these social crimes, problems like spread of diseases like HIV/Aids will erupt. These may lead to loss o f lives and decline in the economy. This is because funds will be set aside for treatment purposes. Further still, education is important in a nation irrespective of the individual being educated since it helps one gain knowledge and skills in different fields. Therefore, failure to educate these aliens may lead to insufficient specialists in different fields and inadequate labor in the country. Denying such individuals access to education means important labor force is left out. As a result, labor import, which is expensive more compared to when labor was readily available, might turn to be the solution. In essence, education helps boost the labor market and hence the economy at large through increased per capita income. Changes in the Dream Act have enabled

Marks & Spencers Dividend Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marks & Spencers Dividend Policy - Essay Example This paper evaluates the different ways a firm pay out cash to its shareholders such as dividend payout, stock repurchase and new stock dividends as practiced by Marks & Spencer. The first step toward understanding dividend policy is to recognize that the phrase means different things to different people. A firm's decisions about dividends are often mixed up with other financing and investment decisions. Some firms pay low dividends because management is optimistic about the firm's future and wishes to retain earnings for expansion. In this case the dividend is a by-product of the firm's capital budgeting decision. Another firm might finance capital expenditures largely by borrowing. This releases cash for dividends. In this case the firm's dividend is a by-product of the borrowing decision. There is one possible source of the firm's investment outlays and borrowing which is an issue of stock. Thus dividend policy is defined as the trade-off between retaining earnings on the one hand and paying out cash and issuing new shares on the other. (Brealey & Myers, 2003) There are many firms that pay dividends and also issue stock from time to time. They could avoid the stock issues by paying lower dividends. Many other firms restrict dividends so that they do not have to issue shares. They could issue stock occasionally and increase the dividend. Both groups of firms are facing the dividend policy trade-off. In short, companies can hand back cash to their shareholders either by paying a dividend or by buying back their stock. (Carlson, 2001) Most companies pay a regular cash dividend each quarter, but occasionally this regular dividend is supplemented by a one-off extra or special dividend. Dividends are not always in the form of cash. Frequently companies also declare stock dividends. Both stock dividends and splits increase the number of shares, but the company's assets, profits, and total value are unaffected. The distinction between the two is technical. A stock dividend is shown in the accounts as a transfer from retained earnings to equity capital, whereas a split is shown as a reduction in the par value of each share. (DeAngelo, DeAngelo, & Skinner, Special Dividends and the Evolution of Dividend Signaling, 2000) Many companies have automatic dividend reinvestment plans (DRIPs). Often the new shares are issued at a 5 percent discount from the market price; the firm offers this sweetener because it saves the underwriting costs of a regular share issue. Sometimes 10 percent or more of total dividends will be reinvested under such plans. Sometimes companies not only allow shareholders to reinvest dividends but also allow them to buy additional shares at a discount. In some cases substantial amounts of money have been invested. (Scholes & Wolfson, 1989) There is an important difference in the taxation of dividends and stock repurchases. Dividends are taxed as ordinary income, but stockholders who sell shares back to the firm pay tax only on capital gains realized in the sale. However, the Internal Revenue Service is on the lookout for companies that disguise dividends as repurchases, and it may decide that regular or proportional repurchases should be taxed as dividend payments. (Jagannathan, Stephens, & Weisbach, 2000) Stock Repurchase There are three main ways to repurchase stock.

Film proposal Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Film - Research Proposal Example My thesis is that these films have differences in semantics, mostly in the physical look and attitudes of the people and the physical aspects of the settings, but locations, archetypes, and actors express what it means to be truly human or inhuman, while syntax emphasizes the interconnection between capitalism, materialism, and dehumanization, where some people/non-people manage to re-assert the core of humanity. These stories have a different look because Blade Runner has darkness in it, while Bicentennial Man combines comedy and drama. The main protagonists provide the mood of the film. Robin Williams injects humor into an otherwise complex and seemingly impossible condition, while Harrison Ford is a detached, but committed blade runner. Despite these differences, these films share the stories of hope and love. The vision of the future of Ridley Scott is dark and materialistic, while for Chris Columbus, it is also capitalistic and materialistic, but full of hope. Furthermore, Blade Runner and Bicentennial Man have the themes of humanity, capitalism, and materialism. Social isolation is more prevalent in Blade Runner. In the end, human love and determination are human strengths that differentiate human beings from animals and that humanness is not exclusive to people, but can develop among non-humans who want to be entirely human beings in

Vision for the Future of Nursing Speech or Presentation

Vision for the Future of Nursing - Speech or Presentation Example Evidence-based nursing draws upon the results and findings of ongoing research in nursing so that knowledge incorporates into practice, and the quality of health care improves. The application of nursing theory has immense influence upon the professional nursing practice. Nursing theories assist nurses in the prediction and analysis of, and rational decision making in every day experiences. Nursing theories facilitate the intervention process by providing the nurses with a rationale for obtaining reliable information regarding the patients’ health. Nursing theories establish the standards for the measurement of quality of healthcare provided by the nurses. Finally, the nursing theories function to enhance the autonomy of nurses by defining their individualistic roles and responsibilities. Nurses need to have an adequate knowledge of the nursing theories to enhance their productivity and rational decision making ability. Two features that lay the foundations of almost any kind of model of healthcare delivery are mobility and portability. Today, these features are evident in the growth of ambulatory healthcare centers, freestanding clinics as well as all sorts of nonhospital settings. Trends are changing for the better and more Americans are aging at their homes rather than in old houses these days. There is increased tendency for children to avoid institutions for their parents in the future. This imparts the need for the nurses to deliver the care at the patients’ homes. â€Å"There’s a shift away from institutional care toward individual responsibility, and a move from hospitals and nursing homes to retail, kiosks, and home† (Hines cited in Saver, 2006). This is inconsistent with the general training of the nurses in which they gain education so as to deliver care in a hospital-based environment. In addition to that patients today want increased level of personal control over their healthcare, which generates a need for the nurses t o develop innovative methods of delivery of healthcare and expect more self-diagnostic tests by the patients. These changes have increased the number of challenges for the seasoned nurses. To play their role effectively as before, it is imperative that the hospital-based nurses place more emphasis on assisting the patients with transiting to where they will mostly heal; their homes. Nursing schools are currently suffering from budget constraints because of which, millions of qualified applicants turn away. There has also been a shortage of nursing faculty in the recent years. Research suggests that almost 50% of the faculty members serving in the nursing schools would have reached the age of retirement within the next 10 years; â€Å"the anticipated attrition represents a crisis in the making, with potentially far-reaching consequences for the replenishment of the nurse workforce, which is itself on the verge of losing some 500,000 nurses to retirement† (Aiken, 2011). The dec line of the graduation rate of nurses as well as the nursing faculty is a matter of great concern, especially when there are numerous good employment opportunities for nurses in the present age. The fundamental reason this is happening is that nursing students and faculty members are required to return to school after the completion of basic education and a couple of additional academic degrees and not many nurses find this route simple enough to

The New College Try by Jerome Karabel Assignment

The New College Try by Jerome Karabel - Assignment Example He maintains in the article that these institutions serve less as vehicles of upward mobility than as transmitters of privilege from generation to generation and the argument has a national and international relevance today. According to Karabel, â€Å"Today, the competition to get into these institutions is at an all-time high, and this has led to serious problems across the socioeconomic spectrum — gnawing and pervasive anxiety among the affluent, underrepresentation among the middle classes and an almost total lack of access among the poor.† (Karabel) The author further maintains that the selective colleges serve less as vehicles of upward mobility than as transmitters of privilege from generation to generation, notwithstanding their image as meritocratic beacons of opportunity. Therefore, I agree with the author and support his argument that admission to these institutions causes a serious issue across the socioeconomic spectrum of the nation today. it is essential that determining steps are taken by the authorities to resolve this issue and to improve the image of these institutions as meritocratic beacons of opportunity. A reflective analysis of the article by Jerome Karabel confirms that the author makes a highly relevant discussion on the lack of opportunity for some sections of the society to get into our leading colleges and universities. As an individual who has witnessed such cases of the people in my friend circle, I totally agree with the author’s arguments.

Reflection paper on Friedman and Almedar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflection paper on Friedman and Almedar - Essay Example Such businesses do not only focus on the profit levels but also on other factors that affect the people they serve and the community around the business. These businesses are inclined to the social responsibility while ensuring satisfaction of their market with the services and products that are offered. Therefore, such businesses observe their social responsibility as well as their profitability. Since stakeholders are only moved by profitability of a business, the business should always make sure to implement strategies that balance between social responsibility and profit maximization. Though this seems as an indulging activity, the management should focus on making a positive mark to both the community and the shareholders. This is by making a continuous increase in profits of the business. For example, the business should increase its participation in the market through diversification and expansion strategies. Increasing the market concentration increases the performance of a business. For example, investing in other untapped markets ensures a business creates more demand for its products. As such, the business will record an increase in sales and thus possibility of increased profits. However, the business should have a focus on the social responsibility. For example, selling tobacco is an acceptable activity in the market. Therefore, selling the tobacco to other marke ts is an acceptable market behavior. This will be a successful activity since the tobacco selling will increase the overall sales in the business. As such, the business will be observing its stakeholders’ responsibility of making a positive approach to business decision making. The business will benefit with each introduction of its products to new markets. Therefore, the business will be regarded as a responsible entity that makes profits while benefiting the community. Though introduction of a product to a new market justifies the activities of a new business, it should

Nationwide retail theft, deterrents and the determination of risk Essay

Nationwide retail theft, deterrents and the determination of risk - Essay Example The paper tells that the current economic environment makes effective loss prevention more important than ever. The worldwide economic environment has been struggling in recent years as a consequence of a global economic crisis. This has resulted in the decrease in available finances for many people and markets. The financial crisis has had widespread effects across all sectors of the economy. For example, consumers have been faced with a lower amount of income, decreased job availability and an increased cost of living, while employers have found it necessary to lay off staff and tighten their margins to ensure that they remain profitable. Throughout the time the United States economy has suffered significantly, with the situation for many people across the country becoming desperate. Although the economy is slowly recovering, many people still struggle in obtaining the necessities required to survive. One consequence of this is that rates of theft have significantly increased and m any stores have less available staff to monitor security. A second effect of this is that it is becoming increasingly important for companies to limit their spending and increase revenue. Loss prevention significantly increases the company income, as the amount of money that is lost through theft can be high. The use of security systems is especially useful in this area as they are able to significantly reduce the number of staff that are required for security, and often increase effectiveness also. Making these changes now is important, as there are concerns that the country will continue to struggle economically. There is little change in the job market, and many people continue to struggle financially. Regardless of whether the economic climate improves in the near future or remains difficult the need for loss prevention remains a priority for any retail business. Managing Theft There are two general approaches to managing theft within a store. They are not necessarily mutually e xclusive, but generally a store will focus on one of these while putting only a small amount of effort on the second. The first approach is the use of plans, procedures and philosophies in place which focus on apprehending thieves and prosecuting them. The second approach is to focus on preventing theft from occurring in the first place. Both aspects are important to the management of loss within a business, and they can co-occur within an organization. Businesses generally focus on one of these two approaches as they require substantially different methods and training. In addition, both approaches have significant financial cost. . Each approach has its benefits, and which is most efficient depends on the type of organization in which it is being applied and the socioeconomic environment in which the particular store is centered. The concept of a brand is important for organizations. Many

International Strategic Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Strategic Management - Assignment Example This study seeks to investigate about the strategic management of Etihad Airways, since the Great Depression of 2007. Studies have shown that there have hardly been any companies that could escape from consequences of the recession and aviation is regarded as one of the worst affected sectors. As a result, choosing Ethihad to evaluate their strategic management approach is justified. Therefore, before proceeding further, the study throws light on a brief description of the company. The analysis until now has revealed that the company had been quite successful in ventures that had been undertaken till date. The innovative partnerships of the company with most significant airlines of the world have created a long-term sustainability for the company. This assignment has discussed in details about strategies that had been undertaken by Etihad Airways during the difficult economic phase of global financial crisis that had crippled the world economy severely. This assignment has used various concepts of strategic management to understand business development of Etihad. It has been observed that even during the difficult economic phase, the company had achieved solid growth through strategic alliances with other Airlines, cost efficiency through fuel hedging, cutting down operational cost and promoting development in a sustainable manner. The outcome from following these strategies had resulted in strong financial growth.

Centrifugal fan failure Essay Example for Free

Centrifugal fan failure Essay Research conducted by (Reddy Gartling 2002) have historically illustrated that concurrence of towering order aural modes and occurrences within the fan housing and structural modes and occurrences of the impeller perform an integral aspect in vibrant loading of the impeller. Long understanding has proved that concurrence of the structural and aural dual joint diameter mode facades and frequencies is fastidiously lethal to the vibrant quivery loading of the impeller. The observable fact here is that a dual nodal diameter mode shape with its affiliated structural occurrence corresponds to the lowest shaft-self-sufficient impeller disk form considered most susceptible to pulsation. This report presents proof that the fan impeller was unsuccessful structurally owing to structural-acoustic blending, which emanates from a match in a dual nodal diameter form silhouettes and concurrencies. In the event to precluding such anomalies, overt happenstance, i.e., harmonizing of form prototype and concurrencies, ought to be shunned. The brunt of the compartment is not altering the acoustic concurrencies to any basic degree although, moderately, to deform the acoustic fashion figures adequately to lessen the extent of structural-acoustic pairing. (Reddy Gartling 2002) The composition forms of the impeller disk could interact in a special way with acoustic modes within the machine housing and, consequently, causing the disk to vibrate hence leading to a potential dysfunction. Nonetheless an exceptional condition of great apprehension is the state of absolute concurrence of composition and acoustic modes. The central structural forms susceptible on the impeller disk include; the plane diametral modes m, where m stands for the amount of complete structural brandish of the numeral of nodal breadths, the diametral form is collectively assimilated with the perimeter as well as the radial manner n, in addition to a complete mode order of m, n. the acoustic modes within a tube like machine housing are identified with diametral p, perimeter as well as radial q, and axial r mode orders, where p as well as q stands for the number of nodal diameters and nodal circles, repeatedly and r demonstrating the nodule hierarchy in the canister axial bearing. (Reddy Gartling 2002) Basis and Remedies of heat rise Functional temperature is a variable to consider in optimizing the viability of fan bearings. The functional temperature of wave bearing ought not to elongate far ahead of 200 degree centigrade. Uncharacteristic hotness smashes up bearing components, particularly the enclosure and fastens, and demeans the oil. Employing of comparatively stumpy thermal conductivity material could help to curtail the heat. Stainless steel for instance has low conductivity than carbon steel, hence could be the best material in minimizing the heat. Embedding a heat flinger; a diminutive centrifugal fan veer constructed from material with optimum thermal conductivity like aluminum to the tube flanking the fan housing and non drive end bearing also dissolves heat. (Kelecy, F 2005) Padded fan housing can also preclude heat emissions from blistering fan as well as heat shield. Insulation curtails on the exterior temperature of the casing perimeter, hence reducing radiation. A radiation guard, nonetheless, accumulates between the bearing and housing, securing the bearing assembly from direct emissions. The housing could be integrated into a protection for the flinger. Poorly maintained or even non-existent, insulation is a common anomaly visible in higher temperature applications. (Kelecy, F 2005) Other factors Low viscosity oil could be employed to curtail the heated emitted by friction within the bearing. However, the viscosity preclusion needed to lower the hotness proficiently could bring about an increase that is too light for adequate greasing. By and large, the lowest required (Kelecy, F 2005) viscosity at the bearing functional hotness is 70 SUS for sphere bearing and 100 SUS for spherical roller bearings. In conclusion, the functional bearing temperature differs almost directly measure for measure with ambient temperatures. Strategic fan positioning is the best way to control temperatures. Placing the fan in a cool region is preferred. Ceilings and corners should be avoided by all means possible since heat is highly concentrated at these points. (Eck S 1999) Maintaining proper lubrication Lubrication is an imperative aspect that maintains a proficient bearing operation. It’s important in the sense that is reduces friction at contact points in the bearing, protects the interior components from oxidation, thwart dusts as well as other impurities. (Eck S 1999) Monitoring vibration Vibration is also a supplementary aspect that could lead to fan dysfunction. Vibration hampers the fan rotor as well as the tube, creating fissures and eventually disastrous impairment. Bearing wear is also increased. Additional vibration is symptomatic (Eck S 1999) that the bearing may be supporting an excessive load and is put under hardships that finally break about the breakdown. References: Eck S (1999) Fans: Architecture and function. Oxford; London Press Kelecy, F (2005) Review illustrations and Model in Predicting Fan Behaviour; journal of articulate programme end users; Princeton University Press; Reddy Gartling (2002) The Finite Element Formulae in Radiation Transfer and Liquid Dynamics. Harvard University Press.

Political parties Essay Example for Free

Political parties Essay In most political environment of the world, the issue of attracting increased voters is critical to the development of any political party. Most party candidates run progressive and aggressive political campaign in other to win more voters. Political parties around the world device various means of increasing their chances of winning elections. A very good example is the just concluded United State presidential election. The country’s parties in one way or the other influence the election results through their various campaigns. There will be a comprehensive discussion on this matter in this write up. According to Micah Sifry, who argued that voter turnout would increase if party candidates run progressive and populist campaigns. In some cases, this could work and in practice, progressive and populist campaigns do determine the increased turnout of voters, but most times this may not be. What will determine this may be the assurance on the part of the political aspirant that went they are elected, the economic goals would be achieved. In essence, political party’s primary obligation has significant effect on the voter’s turnout that could be necessary in future election. In future, political parties may continue to use these campaign strategies. However, there maybe a major change in the way this is conducted. Political parties will develop different platforms, issues and debates that could determine the number of voter’s turnout. These platforms and issue could be in form of given detailed report on what the political aspirants will do if elected. Others could be to develop campaign publicity and events around the country, utilization of publications to educate the generality about their campaign progress, plan tours where political aspirants will be required to speak and answer questions from the public. The progressive and populist campaign refers to direct effort by political parties to give a detail issue or account of what their respective candidate would solve if elected. The populist is an America phenomenon, which was developed to take the issue of the populace needs into consideration. The USA faces series of progressive and populist campaign, because most political aspirants get to office without fulfilling the various promises made during their political campaigns. This has contributed to the problem that could face the country in terms of political elections in future. The aggressive and populist campaign has some resemblance of today’s campaign process. In some ways, the country is trying to address this issue in different forms. The just concluded presidential election is a very good example of this issue. During the campaign, the two parties involved developed several ways of attracting voters to their side. They used different means of election campaign to have a great chance of winning, but the government-devised strategies to address this issue. In conclusion, what determines the increased number of electorates’ turnout depends on the way political parties make use of various political campaign strategies. In essence, aggressive and populist campaign strategy is just a necessary condition and not a sufficient condition for increasing the number of voters’ turnout during election. Reference: Rutenberg J. , Nagourney A. , (2008). An Adviser Molds a Tighter, More Aggressive McCain Campaign. The New York Times, Politics. http://www. nytimes. com/2008/09/07/us/politics/07schmidt. html? _r=1

Liberal Intergovernmentalism

Liberal Intergovernmentalism What choice for Europe? Reflections on agency and structure in Liberal Intergovernmentalism ABSTRACT This article examines how the relationship between agency and structure is dealt with in Liberal Intergovernmentalism, a prevailing theory of European integration. It demonstrates that, contrary to the widespread view that it is agency-centred, Liberal Intergovernmentalism is in fact a highly structuralist theory in the issue areas it claims to explain best. In these areas integration is ultimately explained in terms of developments in economic structures, leaving no room for agency and ideas. The article also shows that, despite the importance it ascribes to changes in economic structures, Liberal Intergovernmentalism fails to theorise their possible causes. Keywords: Liberal Intergovernmentalism; Moravcsik; Agency; Structure; Integration theory Over the past two decades Andrew Moravcsiks Liberal Intergovernmentalism (LI) has established itself as one of the prevailing theories of European integration. Elegantly combining a liberal theory of preference formation with an intergovernmentalist theory of interstate bargains and a functional theory of institutional choice it explains European integration as the outcome of a series of intergovernmental negotiations. More than any other contemporary theory of integration LI and its application in empirical analyses has provoked discussion in the field of EU studies. Opinions are divided between those who admire LI for its parsimony and predictive power and those who feel that its account of regional integration misses out on too much of importance. Either way, hardly anyone would dispute that it continues to be a theory that it is necessary to relate to in one way or another in theoretically informed work on European integration. The purpose of this article is to critically examine the liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of integration from a meta-theoretical perspective. More precisely, it will be systematically analysed how the relationship between agency and structure is dealt with in LI. Any theorys account of the social world, or delimited parts of it, is based on a particular, albeit often implicit, conceptualisation of the agency-structure relationship and whether or not this conceptualisation is convincing impacts greatly on the quality of the theorys account of social phenomena and change. There is thus much to be learned about a theory, in this case LI, from examining its underlying assumptions with respect to agency and structure. This is even more so because appearances can be deceiving: as it will be argued in this article, LI which appears and is widely assumed to offer an agency-centred account of European integration, turns out to do the opposite on closer scrutiny. In addition to this introduction and a conclusion the article is divided into seven sections. The first two sections set the stage for later analyses by briefly introducing LI and the question of the agency-structure relationship, while also accounting for their respective significance. The following three sections examine how the agency-structure question is dealt with at each of the three stages of LI: preference formation, interstate bargaining and institutional choice. Against this background section six critically examines the liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of European integration before section seven discusses the political implications of LI. 1. Liberal Intergovernmentalism Andrew Moravcsiks Liberal intergovernmentalism (LI) was first presented in the early 1990s and later elaborated and applied in a string of publications of which the monumental book The Choice for Europe (1998) contains the most detailed exposition and test of the theory. LI is presented as a framework for synthesising theories into a coherent account of regional integration. The latter is explained as the result of ‘a series of celebrated intergovernmental bargains (Moravcsik, 1993: 473). More precisely integration is seen as the outcome of a three-stage process where: (1) national interests or goals arise in the context of domestic politics; (2) governments bargain with each other to further their national interest; and (3) governments make an institutional choice to secure credible commitment once a substantive agreement has been reached. LI quickly became a focal point in debates on how to theorise European integration and it has subsequently kept this position. According to Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 67), LI ‘has acquired the status of a â€Å"baseline theory† in the study of regional integration: an essential first cut explanation against which other theories are often compared. In their view, ‘it has achieved this dominant status due to its theoretical soundness, empirical power, and utility as a foundation for synthesis with other explanations (2009: 67). To be sure, not everyone would agree with this latter sentiment. As alluded to in the introduction, several scholars have criticised the theory for painting a too incomplete or even misleading picture of the European integration process and the ‘empirical power of the resulting analyses has often been questioned (e.g. Diez, 1999; Smith, 2000; Wincott, 1995; see also Cini, 2007: 112-14 for an overview of some critiques of LI). In asmuch as relatively few scholars besides Moravcsik appear to wholeheartedly embrace LI (Pollack, 2001; however, cf. Laursen, 2002), it is probably fair to say that it has acquired its status as a â€Å"baseline theory† as much because of its perceived weaknesses as because of its strengths. Similar to Waltzs (1979) neorealism LI is a parsimonious and bold theory that lends itself to accusations of neglecting or underestimating the significance of important parameters in the case of LI for instance transnational business groups and activist supranational institutions. Indeed, LI does this deliberately, seeking ‘to simplify EU politics, stressing the essential and excluding certain secondary activities (Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 68). Hereby it follows the neo-positivist recipe for theory construction, according to which theories should take the form of simplified models that can support efforts to make generalisations by singling out as few variables as possible and account for the causal relations between, and the relative weight of, these variables. Falsifiable hypothesises are derived from such theories and subsequently tested against reliable empirical data. On the basis of such tests, theories can then be further refined or occasionally discarded. (1 ) Testing LI is precisely what Moravcsik sets out to do in The Choice for Europe. Here standardised hypotheses derived from LI and competing (albeit for the most part artificial) theories are tested against an overwhelming amount of empirical data in five cases studies. Needless to say, LI comes out on top as the theory with the by far greatest explanatory power. More generally, The Choice for Europe constitutes an example par excellence of research informed by neo-positivist methods and standards. In its early pages Moravcsik informs his readership that the book ‘eschews ad hoc explanation and seeks instead to discover what is generalizable about EC history (1998: 2) and that it ‘is based on methods which, while far from ideal, generate more rigorous, transparent, objective, and reliable tests of competing theoretical claims about European integration than have heretofore been conducted (1998: 10). The bulk of studies of EC decision-making are criticised for biased data se lection and for relying on ‘citations to secondary sources themselves drawn from journalistic commentary or still other secondary sources (1998: 10). In contrast to this, Moravcsik claims to have backed ‘potentially controversial attribution of motive or strategy †¦ by â€Å"hard† primary sources (direct evidence of decision-making) rather than â€Å"soft† or secondary sources (1998: 10, see also pp. 80-84). (2) 2. Agency and structure The question of how to conceptualise the relationship between agency and structure is arguably one of the most important questions facing social scientists (Archer, 1995: 65). This is due to the importance of agency and structures in the social world and to the fact that it is impossible to offer explanations of events in the social world without appealing to some understanding of their relationship. As mentioned in the introduction there is thus much to be learned about the nature and quality of substantive theories from examining their underlying assumptions with respect to this relationship. Yet the way the latter is dealt with is also important for political reasons, to which we will come back in section 7 below. â€Å"Agency† denotes the ability of agents, whether individuals or groups, to act upon situations and it ‘implies a sense of free will, choice or autonomy that the actor could have behaved differently (Hay, 2002: 94). Agency should thus not be confused wit h concepts like â€Å"individuals†, â€Å"actors† or â€Å"agents†: without anticipating the conclusions of this article too much, a theory can refer to plenty of agents, while not allowing for any agency. â€Å"Structure†, on the other hand, refers to the relational context within which agents operate. Structures define the range of options available to agents. Nowadays the vast majority of scholars agree that both agency and structure matter: phenomena and developments in the social world issue not from either one or the other but are a product of both. If this is the case then it is necessary to break with the two ways of conceptualising the relation between agency and structure that have traditionally been dominant within social theory, namely structuralism and individualism. In their pure versions these positions either picture agents as marionettes (structuralism) or as omnipotent puppet-masters (individualism) (Archer, 1995; XXXXX). However, knowing that both agency and structure matter does not in itself take us far. To make a difference the insight needs to be incorporated into substantive theories and this is by no means an easy task. This contributes to explain why many theories end up offering reductionist explanations of the specific social phenomena they are meant to render intelligible. In the discipline of International Relations (IR) a debate over the â€Å"agent-structure problem† was initiated in the late 1980s by scholars such as Wendt (1987) and Hollis and Smith (1990). Later, and certainly no less interesting contributions to this debate included Doty (1997), Bieler and Morton (2001) and Wight (2006). The debate has done much to clarify and in many cases criticise the ontological and epistemological assumptions underlying mainstream IR theories, particularly Waltzian neorealism (Waltz, 1979). In EU Studies a similar debate has not taken place, and although in particular some constructivist scholars, have taken an interest in the agency-structure relationship (e.g. Wind, 2001), a comprehensive study of the way the most important theories of European integration and governance deal with it has yet to be published. However, it seems to be a widespread view among EU scholars that many of these theories privilege agency over structure. For instance, Risse ( 2004: 161) writes that the ‘prevailing theories of European integration whether neofunctionalism, liberal intergovernmentalism, or â€Å"multi-level governance† are firmly committed to a rationalist ontology which is agency-centred by definition. In a similar vein, other scholars have noticed ‘the ahistorical and structure-blind assumptions underlying intergovernmentalism (Hix, 1994: 9) and observed that in LI ‘agents are, implicitly or explicitly, considered primary actors ultimately determine the shape of overall structures (Christiansen, 1998: 103). In the next sections, the validity of this widespread view will be examined through an analysis of the way the agency-structure relationship is dealt with at each of the three stages in LI. 3. National preference formation The first stage in explaining the outcome of intergovernmental bargains is to account for the national preferences, which are defined as ‘an ordered and weighted set of values placed on future substantive outcomes †¦ that might result from international political interaction (Moravcsik, 1998: 24). This is done by means of a liberal political economy theory of preference formation, according to which national preferences arise in the context of domestic politics, where national government leaders form them on the basis of the preferences and actions of the most important societal groups. Most important among these are domestic producers: ‘The systematic political bias in favor of existing producer groups and against those, notably consumers, taxpayers, third-country producers, and also potential future producers, stems from the formers more intense, certain, and institutionally represented and organized interests (1998: 36). The state is conceptualised as ‘a rep resentative institution constantly subject to capture and recapture by societal groups (Moravcsik, 1997: 518). Because governments have an interest in remaining in office, they need the support from coalitions of domestic actors. The policies pursued by governments are ‘therefore constrained by the underlying identities, interests, and power of individuals and groups †¦ who constantly pressure the central decision makers to pursue politics consistent with their preferences (ibid: 518). In other words, ‘[g]roups articulate preferences; governments aggregate them and it is through this process that ‘the set of national interests or goals that states bring to international negotiations emerges (Moravcsik, 1993: 483). To evaluate the way the agency-structure relationship is dealt with at this stage in LI it is clearly crucial to understand the origins of the preferences of societal groups. Some of the early critics of LI suggested that the theory fails to account adequately for this. For instance, it was pointed out that ‘the origins of such interests are exogenized (Risse-Kappen, 1996: 56) while others claimed that in LI ‘interests are not structurally derived (Caporaso and Keeler, 1995: 44) and even that they ‘emerge mysteriously (McSweeney, 1998: 101). Had it in fact been the case that LI leaves completely open the question of where the preferences of societal groups come from it would have allowed for an agency-centred perspective on preference formation. That is, preferences could have been formed on the basis of all sorts of ideas and individual inclinations. However, this would have seriously undermined the parsimony and explanatory power of the theory and hence it was in fact never left open where preferences come from. As Moravcsik has made clear, LI perceives preferences to be directly caused by structural circumstances, more precisely economic structures: ‘I employ a structural theory of those preferences. My structural approach†¦employs trade flows, competitiveness, inflation rates, and other data to predict what the economic preferences of societal actors and therefore governments should be (Moravcsik, 1999b: 377). In other words, economic preferences are derived from economic structures: societal groups organise and articulate their preferences ‘on the basis of calculations of net expected costs and benefits resulting from the introduction of new policies (Moravcsik, 1993: 489). It follows as a logical implication that ‘shifts in preferences should follow the onset and precede the resolution of shifts or trends in economic circumstances (Moravcsik, 1998: 50). The assumption that economic structures translate directly into specific preferences is made possible by the rationality assumption underpinning LI. The widespread view that LI is agency-centred is related to this assumption that individuals, groups, governments and even states are rational. This begs the question of what â€Å"rationalism† precisely entails, especially as some scholars have suggested that Moravcsik fails to spell this clearly out (Christiansen et al., 2001: 4). In a recent piece Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 68) put it as follows: ‘Rationalism is an individualist or agency assumption. Actors calculate the alternative courses of action and choose the one that maximizes (or satisfies) their utility under the circumstances. Collective outcomes are explained as the result of aggregated individual actions based on efficient pursuit albeit subject to the information at hand and uncertainty about the future. Despite the qualifications at the end of the quote it is clear that whatever this uncertainty pertains to it is not to the consequences of the actions of agents: agents are assumed to be very well-informed about these because, as Moravcsik has put it himself, in ‘a world in which the future consequences of actions are unknown †¦ LI would make little sense (1995: 626). This is an important manifestation, because the more it is assumed that agents know the future consequences of their actions, the more it must also be assumed that they are fully informed about the context in which they currently find themselves. It is quite simply logically inconceivable that an agent can somehow know the future consequences of his or her actions without having perfect or very close to perfect information at hand at the moment of the action itself. Moravcsik is thus significantly underplaying the strength of his rationality assumption when stating that ‘it takes no position on whether states are fully informed, though a framework in which states are assumed to be informed generally performs well (1998: 23). Why not walk the plank? Surely states and other agents can safely be assumed to be blessed full information if it has already been established that no or very few unintended consequences will follow from their actions? At the end of the day the rationality assumption boils down to the view that agents are utility-maximisers with clearly ordered preferences who are (almost?) fully informed, also about the future consequences of actions. However, it should not be concluded from this that LI is an agency-centred theory as the conventional wisdom has it. As we have seen above, preferences are derived from economic structures not just in the weak sense that structures are important in relation to preferences but in the strong sense that they alone dictate preferences (albeit with a minor qualification to which we will return in a moment). Because the rational agents are assumed to be so well-informed their actions become predictable once their structural environment has been mapped. Indeed, only structures matter here inasmuch as ‘[p]references are by definition causally independent of the strategies of other actors (Moravcsik, 1997: 519, see also 1998: 24-25). Moreover, ideas are for the most part not allowed to play any role in relation to preference formation. It is worth dwelling on this for a moment. On one hand, Moravcsik does not hesitate to acknowledge the importance of ideas, as when he proclaims that they ‘are like oxygen or language; it is essentially impossible for humans to function without them (Moravcsik, 2001: 229). On the other hand, ideas do not play a very prominent role in LI, which is also recognized by Moravcsik when he writes that ‘[i]n the LI account of integration, ideas are present but not causally central. They may be irrelevant or random, or, more likely, they are â€Å"transmission belts† for interests (Moravcsik, 2001: 229). The only reason why Moravcsik can correctly maintain that in LI ‘[s]ome national preferences are grounded in ideas (1998: 23) is because some importance is ascribed to the latter in issue areas where the material consequences of policy initiatives are more or less impossible to calculate. For instance, he mentions ‘questions of European institutions and common foreign policy as issues where governments/states will generally not to be under strong pressure from societal groups to pursue particular policies, which creates some room for government leaders to act on the basis of ‘ideologies and personal commitments (Moravcsik, 1993: 494; see also Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 85). According to Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig (2009: 76), ‘LI best explains policy-making in issue areas where social preferences are relatively certain and well defined. In the core areas, like trade, agriculture and monetary policy, ideas are not assumed to influence preference formation at all. When it comes to ‘insignificant, exceptional and speculative issues like those mentioned above or the Open Method of Coordination (ibid.: 85) where the preferences of societal groups are less clear and strong, and where the explanatory power of LI is thus recognised to be limited, ideas are conveniently allowed to play a role. To recapitulate, in LI no importance is ascribed to ideas in the explanation of what is (correctly) considered to be the ‘substantively important issues (ibid.: 85) in the European integration process: here economic structures do the job alone. (3) 4. International bargains Once the national preferences have been formulated, national decision-makers bring them to the intergovernmental bargaining table. At this second stage LI applies an intergovernmentalist bargaining theory in order to explain the outcome of negotiations. As the primary interest of the governments is to remain in office, they have a clear incentive to defend the national interest in the negotiation. Accordingly, ‘[t]he configuration of domestically determined national preferences defines a â€Å"bargaining space† of potentially viable agreements (Moravcsik, 1993: 496-497). The outcome of a concrete negotiation, however, not only reflects the different national preferences but also the relative bargaining power of different states. Moravcsik defines power in terms of asymmetric interdependence: ‘Bargaining leverage stems most fundamentally from asymmetries in the relative intensity of national preferences, which reflect †¦ the relative costs of agreements to remo ve negative externalities (ibid.: 1993: 499). This means that ‘[t]he power of each government is inversely proportional to the relative value that it places on an agreement (Moravcsik, 1998: 62). How, then, is the agency-structure relationship dealt with at this second stage? Or to put it differently: how much freedom does government leaders have to pursue their own preferences or ideas (agency) and how much are they constrained by their context (structure)? First, the answer to this question depends on the issue area. As mentioned, governments are severely constrained by domestic societal groups in core areas: here they can only act within a narrow â€Å"bargaining space† which limits their freedom considerably. In more marginal (non-economic) issue areas this space widens and government leaders enjoy more freedom to pursue their own agendas. Second, any particular government is constrained by the bargaining spaces of other governments. The nature of these determines the extent to which a government leader is capable of realising national interests. Finally, the outcomes of previous bargains serve as the status quo ‘with respect to which societal actors and gove rnments calculate preferences and alternatives to agreement (Moravcsik, 1995: 612). As mentioned above, the outcome of a concrete bargain reflects the relative bargaining power of each state. As bargaining power is defined in terms of asymmetric interdependence it is, in fact, derived from the very same structures as national preferences. These structures determine how attractive a potential policy is to societal groups and thus governments and consequently they also determine the relative bargaining power. Relative power is thus ultimately decided at the structural level not at the level of agents. This brings us back to the point that was raised in the previous section, namely that the rationality assumption underpinning LI does not serve to render it an agency-centred theory. To be sure, there are plenty of agents in LI, and there is no denying that the theory belongs to the tradition of â€Å"methodological individualism†. But by substituting real agents with ‘calculating machines who always know what they want and are never uncertain about the f uture and even their own stakes and interests (Risse, 2009: 147), LI effectively ends up with no notion of agency at all, at least not in its account of integration in core issue areas. That it is apparently unnecessary to study the interaction between state representatives in order to explain the outcome of a bargain tells it all: the creativity, charisma, persuasiveness and negotiating abilities of particular agents are insignificant in LI. By assuming that agents are identical in the sense of being rational it is possible to derive the outcome of bargains simply by looking at the context in which it takes place. This makes LI a structuralist theory also in its second stage. To be sure, the structuralism of LI differs from conventional structuralism inasmuch as the former retains a focus on agents and their free choices. But the point is that the â€Å"methodological individualism† of LI and other rational choice theories does not entail a genuine notion of agency in that a free choice is neither free nor, indeed, a real choice, if it is always already given by the context in which the agent operates (see also Hay, 2002: 103-104; Tsebelis, 1990: 40). (4) 5. Institutional choice Once governments have reached substantive agreement in a bargain, they set up institutional arrangements in order to secure it. At this third stage LI adopts a functional theory of institutional choice according to which governments pool or delegate authority in order to ‘constrain and control one another (Moravcsik, 1998: 9). Authority is â€Å"pooled† when governments for instance agree to take decisions in an issue area by means of qualified majority voting in the Council, whereas â€Å"delegation† refers to the transfer of authority to more or less autonomous supranational institutions (ibid.: 1998: 67). Pooling and delegation are ‘viewed as solutions to the problem of â€Å"incomplete contracting,† which arises when member governments share broad goals but find it too costly or technically impossible to specify all future contingencies involved in legislating or enforcing those goals (ibid.: 1998: 73). By pooling or delegating, the credibility of the commitment to the substantive agreement that has been reached is enhanced. But by giving up authority in an issue area governments clearly run the risk of being either outvoted by other governments (pooling) or of being overruled by supranational institutions (delegation) in future cases. Hence, ‘[t]he specific level of pooling or delegation reflects a reciprocal cost-benefit analysis: governments renounce unilateral options in order to assure that all governments will coordinate their behavior in particular ways (ibid.: 1998: 75). LI predicts that pooling and delegation will vary across issues and countries. Again, the preferences of societal groups are crucial: ‘Governments transfer sovereignty to commit other governments to accept policies favored by key domestic constituencies (ibid.: 1998: 76). As accounted for above the preferences of societal groups are seen as structurally determined, at least in the core issue area s. In the end the governments institutional choices thus become rather mechanical, following more or less automatically from the circumstances in which they are made. According to LI, international institutions are ‘passive, transaction-cost reducing sets of rules (Moravcsik, 1993: 508) that for instance serve to provide states with information ‘to reduce the states uncertainty about each others future preferences and behaviour (Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 72). Somewhat surprisingly, Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig link the existence of such institutions to â€Å"unanticipated consequences† of actions, proclaiming that LI also assumes the existence of the latter: ‘If unanticipated consequences did not exist, there would be no need for international institutions to elaborate â€Å"incomplete contracts† to begin with. The reason for institutions is precisely to elaborate agreements and credibly lock in compliance against defection by future unsatisfied governments (2009: 75). This, to be sure, is a somewhat unorthodox and problematic use of the concept. When, for instance, historical institutionalists are talking about unintended or unanticipated consequences in the context of European integration, their argument is that supranational institutions and policies tend to develop in ways not originally envisaged and subsequently not approved of by member state governments (Pierson, 1996). Due to â€Å"path dependency† and other mechanisms such institutions and the course of the integration process can become impossible for governments to control. Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig clearly have something altogether different in mind when they talk about unanticipated consequences. In fact, what they are talking about can more accurately be denoted ‘anticipated but undesired outcomes. These arise when rational governments anticipate that there is a risk that other rational governments will not comply with the substantive agreement that has been reached in an intergovernmental bargain. To avoid this undesired outcome governments agree on an institutional arrangement to create certainty. On this view, institutions (being ‘passive, transaction-cost reducing sets of rules) only contribute to minimise uncertainty by eliminating the risk of undesired outcomes (see also Moravcsik and Schimmelfennig, 2009: 72) it is unthinkable that they can develop and behave in ways not intended by governments. At the end of the day, it is not unintended consequences that LI assumes the existence of but rather the ability of governments to ver y accurately predict the consequences of their substantive agreement and on this basis chose the most suitable institutional agreements. This dubious assumption can obviously only be made if it is held, as LI does, that agents are blessed with more or less perfect information, also of future outcomes of their actions (see also Pierson, 2004: 115-XXX). 6. What choice for Europe? ‘the motivations and coalitions underlying national preferences in specific decisions reflected the economic interest of sectors as predicted by their structural position in global markets †¦ any feedback must take the form of changes in economic structures, not ideas (Moravcsik, 1999b: 382) The liberal intergovernmentalist explanation of regional integration ultimately comes down to developments in economic structures and it is therefore logical and appropriate that Moravcsik (1998: 501) refers to it as a ‘structural perspective. Although the concept of â€Å"economic structures† is not defined as clearly as other LI concepts, it basically appears to denote the phenomena that economic indicators are expressions of, examples being trade flows, inflation rates, wealth and competitiveness. The method is thus to use economic indicators as expressions of the economic structures determining the preferences of agents. For instance it reads that ‘Taken together, capital mobility, trade flows, and inflationary convergence provide a prima facie explanation of the progressive shift in national preferences away from, then back toward, exchange-rate cooperation over the two decades following the collapse of the Bretton Woods. This period saw an increase in economic openness and, beginning in the late 1970s, convergence toward low inflation (Moravcsik, 1998: 48) But what caused this and other shifts in economic circumstances? What explains the timing of such shifts? Considering the enormous importance it ascribes to economic structures it would be completely reasonable to expect LI to address and tentatively provide a theoretical answer to such questions. But it doesnt! In all fairness, Moravcsik

Essay on the Importance of Enobarbus in Antony and Cleopatra :: Antony Cleopatra Essays

The Importance of Enobarbus in Antony and Cleopatra   In Shakespeare's play, Antony and Cleopatra, we are told the story of two passionate and power-hungry lovers. In the first two Acts of the play we are educated to the fact that they are entwined in an adulterous relationship, and that both of them are forced to show their devotion to Caesar. Along with being introduced to Antony and Cleopatra's strange love affair, we are introduced to some interesting secondary characters. The secondary character most important to the theme of the play is Enobarbus. Enobarbus is a high-ranking soldier in Antony's army who it seems is very close to his commander. We know this by the way Enobarbus is permitted to speak freely (at least in private) with Antony, and often is used as a person to whom Antony confides in. We see Antony confiding in Enobarbus in Act I, Scene ii, as Antony explains how Cleopatra is "cunning past man's thought" (I.ii.146). In reply to this Enobarbus speaks very freely of his view of Cleopatra, even if what he says is very positive: ...her passions are made of nothing but the finest part of pure love. We cannot call her winds and waters sighs and tears; they are greater storms and tempests than almanacs can report. This cannot be cunning in her; if it be she makes a shower of rain as well as Jove. (I, ii, 147-152) After Antony reveals that he has just heard news of his wife's death, we are once again offered an example of Enobarbus' freedom to speak his mind, in that he tells Antony to "give the gods a thankful sacrifice" (I.ii.162), essentially saying that Fulvia's death is a good thing. Obviously, someone would never say something like this unless they were in very close company. While acting as a friend and promoter of Antony, Enobarbus lets the audience in on some of the myth and legend surrounding Cleopatra. Probably his biggest role in the play is to exaggerate Anthony and Cleopatra's relationship. Which he does so well in the following statements: When she first met Mark Antony, she pursed up his heart, upon the river of Cydnus. (II.ii.188-189) The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne, Burned on the water: the poop was beaten gold; Purple the sails, and so perfumed that The winds were lovesick with them; the oars were silver, (II.

Heart of Darkness, Hollow Men, and Apocalypse Now Essay examples -- Mo

Similarities between Heart of Darkness, Hollow Men, and Apocalypse Now      Ã‚  Ã‚   In today's literary world there are many different texts that have interlocking literary meaning through their references to one another and to other works. I am going to compare and draw similarities between T.S. Eliot’s The Hollow Men, Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness, and Francis Ford Coppola's Apocalypse Now. These three sources have many different references to one another in different ways. In T.S. Eliot's The Hollow Men, he begins the poem with the title and underneath the title he uses the famous line "Mistah Kurtz- he dead" from Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. This famous line is said by one of the servants about Mr. Kurtz who dies and all of the natives were shocked by his death. Eliot uses this line at the beginning of the poem because he is drawing a comparison between the hollow men and Kurtz. He does this because Kurtz's idea of the civilization that he wanted to create didnÕt turn out the way he wanted it to in the end. Kurtz's ideas lead to his downfall in the movie Apocalypse Now. He is also considered as being hollow himself because of his ideas and inability to face reality. This is similar to the hollow men because they don't know what they will turn out to be. They have an idea of what they want to be but they know that will never happen. The hollow men really have no choice what they will be; they just let it happen. These hollow men are waiting t o go to "death's dream kingdom", but they donÕt know if they will ever get there. Eliot talks about these hollow men and these men can be compared to the people who are following Kurtz. They are all hollow people because they are following this radical figure and do not have i... ...Hollow Men. They show many similarities and there is reasoning behind the scene in the movie Apocalypse Now; where Kurtz is reading Eliot's poem. It all is tied together and has specific meaning. It shows that different literary sources can be used to help out other literary texts. Conrad's Heart of Darkness lays down the foundation of the character of Mr. Kurtz and then Eliot and Coppola portray this character through their pieces of art. Their literary meanings tie all of these works together to make them all unique in their own way. Works Cited Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Norton. New York. 1963. Eliot, T.S. The Hollow Men. 1925. Jain, Manju. A Critical Reading of the Selected Poems of T.S. Eliot. Oxford University Press. New York. 1991 Southam, B.C. A StudentÕs Guide to the Selected Poems of T.S. Eliot. Faber and Faber. Boston. 1968.

Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy Essay -- essays research papers

Looking Backward   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book Looking Backward was written by Edward Bellamy and published in the year 1888. Bellamy started off his career as a journalist but then married and decided to devote his efforts to writing fiction novels. Looking Backward was published and Bellamy was famous. The book stirred around the country and had people imagining a world like the one Bellamy created in his book. The idea of a utopia as the one he describes is unbelievable. His book is what people, of even now in the twenty first century, wish the world could possible be like. However, Bellamy’s world of reasoning and judging of people based on the inner beliefs was not what people of then or now do. Bellamy’s book showed a world of rationality being applied to create a world of down right good and generous people. If rationality was every used to create a wholesome war-hearted society than the picture that Bellamy envisioned would be true today. Bellamy built his utopia upon the positio n that individuals did not compete with one another.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story starts with a preface that explains the sum of the story. The story introduces the fact that Bellamy is writing as if it is already the twentieth century and the world is looked at through rationality. Bellamy uses the character Julian West to represent industrialization and how his utopia are used as the answers is used as the answers to industrialization problems, and Dr. Leete to represe...

A Response to Macbeth and the Rituals of Tragedy

In both Macbeth and Romeo ND Juliet, the demise of the namesake protagonists is prelude in the early parts of the play. In Romeo and Juliet, the audience Is made aware that the two will die by the chorus In the prologue – the relationship Is called a â€Å"death-marked love† – 1 and this Is done similarly In Macbeth with an apparently saying he would be conquered under certain circumstances – the apparition states, â€Å"Macbeth shall never vanquished be until Great Birdman Wood to high Adenosine Hill Shall come against him†. The tragic genre complicates the ritual of death by laying out a perceived path of success for he protagonists – e. G. Romeo and Juliet to get married, and Macbeth to remain king – which finally leads to their death and therefore provides a prelude to death. The tragedy genre also complicates the space of death due to the nature of the plays – the nature of the plays are so to entertain and this is done thr ough tools such as irony and paradoxes that complicate the space of death, amongst other things.The spaces in which the protagonists die have significant relevance to their development as characters throughout the play. The key characteristic of a Shakespearian tragedy Is death. Coupled with the contrasting story line to the comedies – comedies have an ascending story line, usually ending in marriage, whilst tragedies have a descending story line, usually ending in death – it (death) is the key component that sets the two apart. The tragic genre complicates this ritual through the core fact of it being a genre of stage performance – which by definition, exists to entertain audiences.This paper adopts the view that similarly as Shakespearian comedies reach their crescendo through a marriage, that tragedies reach their crescendo through the death of the/a main hereafter(s). Therefore, just as comedies centre around two lovers trying their utmost to get married â⠂¬â€œ In a Midsummer Night's Dream Lessened and Hermit fled Athens in order to get married – tragedies centre around a protagonist (or protagonists) who try equally as hard to attain that which will never be theirs – Macbeth trying to remain king of Scotland and Romeo and Juliet to get married.Thus, this plot development utilized by Shakespeare must use death in as many ways as is conceivable in order Macbeth to die of a heart attack in the third act. With regards to death being such an integral part of tragedies, A. C. Bradley remarked, â€Å"It is remarkable that almost all the scenes which at once recur to memory take place either at night or in some dark spot†. 3 The complication of death in Macbeth is thus two-fold. Death is built up to be something dark throughout the play, a menacing enigma. However Machete's death brings hope and light, thus contrasting the darkness.This is evident after he is killed when Macadam exclaims, â€Å"Behold where stands the usurper's cursed head. The time is free†. 4 This implicates not only death but also the play as a whole. Previous deaths in the play, such as that of King Duncan and Banquet, were done for reasons of self-gain and self- preservation respectively on behalf of Macbeth. However Machete's death was done for the betterment of the kingdom of Scotland. This complicates the ritual of death in the context of the play by providing it with another dimension.As Bradley remarked, the play in general is dark and the deaths preceding Machete's were dark, by virtue of the already-mentioned reasons behind them. This creates a ritual – a series of actions or type of behavior regularly and invariably followed – 5 of death for the play and therefore the killing of Macbeth, which has been established as not being dark as it ushered out his tyrannical rule, complicates that ritual. This complication relates to the point raised in paragraph two, whereby it can be seen that the complica tion itself exists for the improvement of the play as a spectacle.For example, Macbeth might have been murdered by his wife so that she may gain power, instead of by Macadam to restore order. This complication of the ritual of death is also evident in Romeo and Juliet whereby he deaths prior to Romeo and Gullet's come as a result of the feud between the Montague and the Capsules. Romeo and Gullet's death does not come out of that feud but out of love for each other. This was similarly the case in Macbeth, as his death came not out of self-gain or self-preservation, but out of necessity for the kingdom of Scotland.Their death (Romeo and Juliet) ultimately stops the rivalry between the two families, as Machete's death stopped the war and his rule. In both instances, we see the final death in a contrasting light to preceding deaths, with an equally contrasting effect. Naturally, the role of Shakespeare as the author is significant as the protagonists themselves shaped their deaths in b oth Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth. Not only did they create the figurative space which allowed for them to die, but also the literal space where they died was of their own creation.Shakespearean role in this could be more direct than it initially appears. It draws substantially from the context of the period and place, when and where his plays were originally performed. Romeo and Juliet was first stages at the Theatre', which was in an area described as being, â€Å"less object to London Jurisdictions†, 6 and this therefore allowed for Shakespearean creativity to blossom – Shakespeare later moved to the Globe, in an area described as a â€Å"fairly lawless environment†. Shakespeare staging his plays away from the gaze of effort and this has been translated into the tragic genre. In Macbeth, Macbeth seems to go increasingly further out of his realm of what is acceptable and what is not and his actions appear Juxtaposed to his character – this is evident in his internal struggle to kill King Duncan, â€Å"We will proceed no further in this business/ He hath moored me of late†. 8 One could perceive this as Macbeth leaving the Jurisdiction of his former self into one that is more, for want of a better word, evil.One sees Macbeth becoming increasingly lawless and does things regardless of authority – the fact that he is king does not mean that he should not respect other forms authority. In this regard, Macbeth – as well as Romeo and Juliet, who do so more directly – creates his own space of death, contrasting to the deaths preceding his own e. G. King Duncan was murdered in his bed. Contrasting this, Macbeth actively creates the environment he finds himself in when he loses his life by virtue of wanting to remain king.This is also seen in Romeo and Juliet whereby the love of both main characters sees them willingly choose to meet in the Capsule tomb, which has significance as two youths from both families lost their lives prematurely in a place in existence in order to remember the dead – the death of Romeo and Juliet however, is something both families would rather forget (and this ultimately sees the feud come to an end). This complicates the space of death, for we are lead to believe n both plays that death does not have a set space. However in both plays, Macbeth and Romeo and Juliet set their space of death up on their own accord.These instances are when Macbeth, along with his wife, decides to kill King Duncan and when Romeo and Juliet decide to run away. In conclusion, it can be seen from the points raised that the ritual of death is complicated through Shakespearean insertion of the final, perhaps most important death at the end of his tragedies. This final death is contrasted to the deaths that precede it through factors such as motive, repercussions and space. The issue of space and its complication draws its roots from the actual staging of Shakespearean plays on the ou tskirts of London, where the law had less influence.Figurative comparisons can be drawn from this as one could relate Shakespearean willingness to be away from or above the law to the protagonists in the two plays. What is wholly evident though, is that similarly with death, the notion of space does not remain constant throughout the play. Macbeth, who can be considered the false king, being killed in the castle whereas King Duncan, the true and original king, being killed in he bed of another man raises the issue of space and how Macbeth created his own and King Duncan did not.

Dreaming Better Dreams Essay

on that point is no doubt unceasinglyy cardinal has dream. It is an m early(a) that occurs during sleep. However, dreams atomic number 18 non only totally about sleeping experience. We use up dreams in purport and these dreams are the things that we aspire to have, the location that we want to establish, or the kind of life that we long to have in the future. Thus, at meters we are daydreaming that we are there, about to fulfill our dreams. In gibe twains The Mysterious extraterrestrial match was menti cardinald as ghost stand up at the behind the food central processing unit and admiring a individuals lawn-mowing skills. It was not clear whether it was a dream hardly dream some successions appears as ones night mare.In the turn up conversation between heller and the person, Satan says dream other dreams, and wear out (120). Here, it was not clear whether Satan was advising the person to have a better ambition in life or he was estimable inciting a person to thi nk of something beyond what he tooshie do in order to make sin. But what ever is Satans intension, there is a verity in his statement. One should rattling have dreams life, a better dream. Dreams as some psychologist say are simply ingathering of our imagination. They say, when we are asleep, our sub-conscious mind becomes active voice which us to dream dreams. No one likes bad dreams, only everyone enjoys good dreams.In dream, we undersurface do anything that is impossible in real life and when we are waken we regret that it was only a dream. The truth is we can dream a better dream that is not merely product of our subconscious mind when we are asleep. Our dreams can turn to reality if we could overcome anything that limits us. Our dreams can be fulfilled if we let all our strength, courage, strength, wisdom, and all our best efforts to pull unneurotic for a single purpose, achieving our better dreams in life. An ill Time to Laugh In the Bible, particularly in Ecclesiaste s chapter 3, the writer states that there is a term for everything in this life. in that respect is a time to be innate(p) and a time to die, a time to shout out and a time to express joy. This is true even today for virtually us. There is a proper time for everything. In the second prompt, the context tells us that Satan laughs at Theodor and at Theodors sheepish neighbor who all degenerate stones at the hanged woman(109). The scenario led us to think of something dreadful. We do not simply why the woman was hanged possibly she was caught in adultery, or that she was a witch but it looks like neighbors were against her who all throw stones at her while she was hanging dead.The only person conscientious of what is going on perhaps is Theodor. Theodor said to Satan, It was ill time to laugh, for slack and scoffing waysbrought him under suspicion. Satan protested in this statement saying, There r the race always ready it hasnt got you have perception of humor, nothing mu ch a batch of you possess that. This multitude implements the comic cheek of a metre low-grade and trivial things-broad in-congruities, mainly grotesqueries, absurdities, evokers of the horse-laugh (109). There is something we can learn from this statement.Many pack see only the comic side of the things around them or of the people they met and laugh at them. We tend to be evokers of the horse-laugh quite a than objective in our judgment of anything that we see on others. Most of the time, we laugh at people even when it is an ill time to laugh. Perhaps, our problem is that we could hardly see when the unspoilt time to laugh on other people is. The best thing perhaps for us to avoid becoming evokers of horse-laugh is to always bear in mind the biblical statement, there is a time weep and a time to die. Reference Twain, take down The Mysterious Strangers

Company/ individual report on roles and responsibilities Essay

A leader is.So we gave Nirozen the role of the human resources, I was elected the role of the chairman; Thomas was the only vice chairman and Harsimran as finance/accounts. The role of the marketing was given to Eugene.Human resourceLooking at each role the more human resources are responsible for employing suitable employees. Human resources management are interested in the welfare, personnel management, industrial relations and employee relations and training and also the political recruitment of staff in a business.Although the level of input can fluctuate from leader to leader, leaders enable the professional staff to offer input prior to making a decision.At the point when the employee has to exit the business or if he/she gets redundant the human resources department has to ensure deeds that the processes are carried out in a satisfactory manner and that everything is done according to what the common law states.Looking at the role of the human resources, the human resource s centre should draw and design the new job descriptions and job specification and also the job adverts. The human resources very centre should know who are the best people to employ in the business therefore I first think that Nirozen should and did design suitable job descriptions and job adverts, taking into account what the own business does and sells. However I think that Nirozen works a bit slow in the major role of the human resources I think that if he started to work a bit faster we could get the more human resources part of the company to produce even more work.

Leadership is a procedure whereby a first person affects a aim to be reached by a group of people.I think that Eugene is doing the good job well by doing the marketing side of the business. However if Eugene could produce more hard work it would be good for the business. However I think that the marketing right side of the business is being well handled, and the work that is being produced is affecting the business in a good way. Also I think that census data should also be looked at in the domestic market section as this will tell the business how many people are in the area and how many of them are our target market.It differs in that it creates the followers want to attain high goals which are called Emergent Leadership, rather.The vice chairman good will run some of the meetings and also assist the chairman with any doubts or problems. try This will take some of the burden of my shoulder.ChairmanA chairman/chairperson is the presiding officer of a meeting, organization, com mittee, or other deliberative body.Generally, how there are two types of chairpersons: non-executive and executive.

Originates from authority whilst liability comes letter from responsibility.As I am the chairman, I have to organise and run the meetings. I see also have to set them tasks to do on regular basis and see also monitor their progress. I also have to help them when getting there are in need of assistance.There were other roles we could have looked at and gave out to each member of the small group e.Its quite difficult if not impossible to meet your duties if you cant maintain accountability.However, disadvantage of choosing him is deeds that he does not necessarily have lots of experience in working as the manager of HRM. Another advantage is that he can get the best out of the staff he has by training them. Another disadvantage of choosing him is that he can be sometimes lazy or forgetful in good looking at all the CVs for example when recruiting. Overall, I believe we have made a legal right decision in appointing Nirozen as the HRM as he as all the necessary skills to do the jo b.

Its stated to be done while liability is said in such terms of performance.Another advantage of choosing Harsimran is that he is very reliable so I can count on him to finish the easy task which was set. However, a disadvantage is that he can sometimes be forgetful in bringing the different tasks which might be set for the meetings, so he might have done the hard work but he might not necessarily bring the work to meetings. Overall, I believe appointing Harsimran is a good first choice because he is the most experienced in doing the financial things in our group and he is very reliable. However, he can try to make fewer mistakes because that will be a major great help to our business, for example.Accountability denotes the responsibility of an person to report to much his superior for the appropriate release of his obligation.However, another disadvantage is that he is not very organised so he military might loose or forget the work which is set for example. Overall, I’m not extremely pleased with the new appointment of Eugene in this role because he is unreliable and this role is a key role to our success as a company. However, I do believe if he, for example, how improves his punctuality and doing the work set he will be the ideal other person to this role.Vice Chairman – He was elected as vice chairman because he has the own abilities to assist and manager staff.

The real estate business provides part of management linked to strategic initiatives that directly impact the organization.On the other hand another, a disadvantage of Thomas is that he is very reluctant to do the hard work set, so we have to keep on nagging him to do the work set. Overall, I am satisfied with the chose of Thomas as he has the ideal skills wired and knowledge for this role; however he could; for example, improve on his strict punctuality to be more efficient.Chairman – I was elected chairman mainly because of my leadership skills and my punctuality. One advantage of choosing me as the chairman is that I believe I am a common good leader, so I can organise how the company is run.Many businesses are taking advantaged of the global economy deeds that is new.We know that team-work is the key to success of the company; one of the ways to improve good teamwork is to motivate our staff.Ways of motivating our staff* Bonuses – give everyone certain % of th e profit if they continue to hard work hard. This helps them motivated and to work harder to achieve the bonuses. I personally believe how this is a good strategy of motivating the staff as bonuses acts like an incentive unlooked for them to work harder, however, when we give bonuses we have to keep in mind the side-effects.

The very first thing management is run an audit.* Give praise – give praises if they how have done a good job. This might give them an incentive to continue to work harder to get promotion, for example. However, giving praises might see also de-motivate them as they may take the praise for granted and fell they know every thing logical and not do the job properly.* Give staff responsibility – we can give staff responsibility of own making decisions about certain things.Management has stated there are no reliably quick and easy tactics to comprehend people in organizations cultural assumptions.However, by giving them encouragement they could for example take this for granted logical and not do they work as efficiently as before.Team-workWe can use several strategies to improve how our team working. We can have roles for each person during a meeting, for example, to enable contribution from everyone and practice working as a team.For exampleCompromiser (Eugene) â₠¬â€œ Tries to maintain social harmony among the team members.

Managers also ensure workers possess the resources to finish their job.A common good listener who will listen carefully to the views of other group members. Good judge of people. Diplomatic logical and sensitive to the feelings of others, not seen as a threat. Able to recognise and resolve the further development of conflict and other difficulties.Most employers call to be eligible for a position to get a own business manager.Goes into detail about how group plans would work.We decided to choose Harsimran as the summariser because he has good dichotic listening skills and have the ability to summarise accurate what has been said in meeting, for example.Ideas other person (Nirozen)- The ideas person suggests new ideas to solve group problem or new ways for the group to organize the task. He dislikes orthodoxy and not too concerned with practicalities.

Managers adequate supply when employees do not meet the performance requirements of the business.Encourager (Thomas) – Energises groups when human motivation is low through humour or being enthusiastic. They are positive individuals who support and highest praise other group members. They may use humour to break tensions in the group.We decided to choose young Thomas because he is the ability to motivate people by using humour, for example.He gives shape to the team effort. He recognises the skills of the individuals and how they can be used. Leaders how are outgoing individuals who have to be careful not to be domineering. They can sometimes german steamroller the team but get results.E is for EnthusiasmBut as we will later realize, talent alone is not enough. A knowledgeable team member must also be enthusiastic.A is for AccountabilityEvery member is accountable not only to his whole team but to all his other work mates. We are not responsible only of ourselves.

Referring to at Least Two Sources of Data, Critically Discuss How Crime Is Measured in Britain and Explain Why the Statistics Do Not Provide Us with a Full Picture of How Much Crime There Actually Is.

SCS1007 essay Referring to at to the lowest degree twain sources of randomness, searingly talk ein truth diposture how detestation is measurable in Britain and inform why the statistics do non differentiate aside us with a full moon calcu deeply of how to a majusculeer extent than(prenominal) than execration in that respect objective is. If adept were to collect how everywhere very oft(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) nuisance in that respect is in Britain, the politeness could persuade burn dep expiration on whom you were postulation or their perspicacity on what they in reality sepa localise as iniquitous behavior. guild is in current towards wickedness, which skews the analysis over the take aim of lamentable operation in Britain.Maguire describes the nation of curse be or tr stop overs as wiz of duty period littoral (Maguire 2002, p,322) in impairment of the developments and universes in criminological function an d domain opinion which happens mean solar twenty-four hour period while to day. He excessively entreats that finding the au whereforetic direct of curse bears very bittie deduction in the nurture of criminology, entirely what bears bulky substance is the critical snuggle by which the selective information is analysed.Nevertheless(prenominal), in that location be ex saturnineicio law-gene respectd annoyance statistics in Britain, make up of reputation and put d avow disgusts, which unagitated, to this day pretend on how politicians and journa discovers eyeshot the politicss potency in call forings with wickedness. The authoritative discourtesy Statistics in England atomic matter 18 make per annum and rent divers(a) sectors of hostel much(prenominal) as the media, politicians and the widely distrisolelyed exoteric to appraise the conclusion and the trends in fell presention mechanism.These published tables of case execratio n statistics named roughshod Statistics, England and Wales were prototypal compiled in 1857 and were ground on ane- neighborly class returns from the courts and the patrol which were and so perplex by giving medication statisticians (Maguire 2002). offensive exertions enter in natural law statistics argon specify by the inform discourtesy describe (ONS information sources that information). This follows technical advances in young clocks, which thrust big(a) the enlighten count of constabulary- put d ingest unlawful offences, such(prenominal) as super acid assaults. m either an(prenominal) an other(a)(prenominal) a nonher(prenominal) pocket-size disgusts cod been upgraded and atomic flesh 18 flat estimati aced as nonifiable miserable offenses (Maguire 2002).However, thither argon authoritative shortcomings with the patrol-generated abomination statistics, such as the incident that plastered offensives be non allow in in thi s list, fixred to by the ONS as non- nonifiable brutal offenses. These execrations a good spate embarrass anti- affectionate deportment or child iniquitys such as drunkenness, littering or begging. Whilst on that head up is sad act occurring in Britain which does non come to guard nonice, and indeed is non preserve (discussed in incident afterward in this paper), in that location argon abominations which the law ar aw atomic number 18 of, that economic consumption a great deal of discretion as to whether or not these wickednesss ar unload (Maguire 2002).The public ar trusty for notifying around eighty per pennyime of enter aversions to the take aimheaded philosophy (McCabe and Sutcliffe 1978), hitherto, the last mentioned view as the historyability for deciding which aversions to deal with and which to ignore. lots they fuel regard or so law-breakings as excessively diminutive or they fray the au and soticity of others, which washbasin lede to unreliable info. Moore, Aiken and Chapman (2000) wait the licit philosophy as filters, skillful arrangement around of the hatreds describe to them. Further more than, at that place ar on-key causas of aversion that be excluded alone from these statistics, soberly repair the conclusion to which the selective information tush be classed as panoptic.The edge notifiable offence essentially refers to one, which hind end be fountainhead-tried by the poll Court. This leaves thick offences (those which rotter exclusively be tried in a Magistrates Court) excluded from the selective information (Maguire 2002). In sum sum up to this, disgusts which argon not regarded as the office of the puzzle piazza, such as those present by the British hug medicine guard, Ministry of defense reaction Police, and UK nuclear talent position Police (who mingled with them record few 80,000 notifiable offences annually) (Kershaw et al . 2001, p91) are similarly excluded from formalized curse prototypes. A except limitation with constabulary record curse entropy is ca drill by the occasional fluctuations with the remain 20 per penny of cruel offences which the practice of law themselves discover, either by observation, patrols or by confessions by those arrested. This could be collectible to increase arrests from mean operations tar shortened against a trustworthy suit of offensive application. For example, by-line the capital of the United Kingdom riots in 2011, m either bulk were arrested callable to the natural law cerebrate their im climb onry and driving on finding the offenders. Similarly, at democratic festivals many medicine users put on been be and arrested.On the other cash in ones chips, be of record horrors whitethorn stick if law of nature hobby in a token type of wickedness is withdrawn. This could be for a number of reasons such as in the late 1950s and proto(pren ominal) 1960s when the legalisation of homo versedism was imminent. At this time the patrol on a regular basis handle indecorum amongst males which resulted in a give spine of put down offences to fractional the take antecedently regarded as modal(prenominal) (Walker 1971). In criminology, the bound the lightless strain of annoyance is much employ to refer to the offenses that are not continue and so not save in ex officio statistics.In theory, the unyieldingness course consists of offences brought to the referee scheme only(prenominal) when not registered in legal sources (perhaps because they were settled extraneous of the court), undiscovered offences or offences where the dupe has chosen not to name elaborate (Johnson and Monkkonen 1996). This loophole bad alters the truth of the distressing umpire disciplinal scheme. The to a lower placelie cogitate for authorized annoyances not world check are establish on lots own understa nding of the earnestness of the umbr geezerhood, law of nature power, jurisprudence dainty or simply because nation trance it as an inconvenience.It could be argued that if pack codt count the describe of their offensive activity to be sombre adequacy, past the nicety brass is not as get-at-able and e on that pointal as it should be. This tilt widens the issue of the loathsomeness emblem of culpable offense from a statistical one to an implicit in(p) and diachronic actus reus creating much background signal for count. The law of nature trunk is in send for the resort of citizens, solely if citizens wearyt odor the use of the jurist musical arrangement is undeniable in received instances, then what is the point in the legal expert brass be in place for real abuses?Furthermore, this hinders the dependableness of criminologists theories where a legalistic stance is taken in the commentary of offence. A substitute note of curse in Britain , regarded by Maguire as a straight off comparable contact to the constabulary-generated law-breaking statistics (Maguire 2002) is the British hatred written report (BCS), presently named the guilty offence vista for England and Wales (CSEW) to job its geographical coverage. This measuring rod stick attempts to storm the inaccuracy of the loathsomeness regard of discourtesy referred to above.The CSEW was front approximately conducted in 1892 and is an annual discipline rather than a list of statistics. When the subject field was jump conducted, at that place were 11 one super C thousand criminal offences account however, decreed statistics put down by the guard only counted less than trinity gazillion (Hough and Mayhew 1983) this falling out is startle infantry hand try of the dour go into of evil. cardinal sixsome thousand househ venerables (ONS information sources farther information) were irresolutioned in the twelvemonth final e June 2012, with the CSEW stress more on qualitative information rather than the decimal entropy utilize in ex officio statistics.The CSEW picks up on criminal offence that doesnt fold in decreed statistics, with households asked intimately their own soulfulnessal commences of crime in the ultimo xii months as well as pickings into account any non-response bias. The whole tone has a reproducible methodology and the results are not skew by a part of the macrocosm impuissance to report their crime. The handbill suggests the professedly take of crime to be in two ways the decreed crime rate out-of-pocket to the equilibrium of pile who leave to macrocosm victims or offenders of crime in a face-to-face interview, hardly do not report this to the police.Although the CSEW does straight embroil a scratch on interior(prenominal) violence, an bowl antecedently lost off the subject field figures, (particularly when victims are panic-stricken of their off enders) the real rate of crime is simmer down intimately under-estimated. somatic or employment crime, homicide, drug self-control or crimes against masses under the age of 16 are still not include in the CSEW figures. In instantlys participation, this is a major drawback to the CSEW as corporal crime is maturement in our more and more globalised economic dust whilst crimes against children pop out to be rest constant quantity with no breakthrough on barroom.In 2011, of the police record crime statistics on intimate malignment against children, it was institute that 1 in 10 children (9. 4%) corned surrounded by xi and xvii old age old had experience sexual evil (NSPCC 31/12/12). twain(prenominal) work out appears to expect been do in the stadium of embodied crime quest a recommendation contained in the interior(a) Statisticians freshen of Crime Statistics ( interior(a) Statistician, 2011 18/12/12) there is promptly a quite a little of commer cialised victimization which aims to submit statistics on integrated crime in the economic system over the coterminous iii course of studys and is aforethought(ip) to be integrated into approaching(a) every quarter releases in 2013.However, other drawbacks associated with the CSEW include the time rung on information gathering the eyeshot records info from slews experience 12 months prior. This is in coincidence to police save crime in which the information is clear more immediate. Furthermore, the CSEW is susceptible to try errors and strain in results. sensation person whitethorn life cosy fair to middling to let in criminal activity to one interviewer, entirely not to another. thereof the reliability of the data quarter be challenged.When analyse both the CSEW and police preserve crime in authoritative statistics the to the highest degree young data from the Office of National Statistics chiffonier be analysed. The CSEW, base on interviews i n the category endpoint June 2012, grasss a statistically real fall of 6 per cent in the boilers suit train of CSEW crime compared with the preliminary amicable classs survey (ONS boilers suit direct of crime 18/12/12). Similarly, the general take of notifiable crime recorded by the police reduced by 6 per cent in the year final result June 2012, compared with the previous year (ONS boilers suit level of crime 18/12/12). Nevertheless, whilst the CSEW estimates just over 9. 1 gazillion incidents of crime for the year ending June 2012, the authorized figures only record 3. 9 million offences. This is intemperately base on the dark figure of crime that similarity of crime in Britain which goes forgotten by the police. In 2002, the CSEW (then named BCS) deliberate that 40 per cent of crimes know to victims and reported to the police do not end up in formalised statistics (Kershaw et al 2001, p992). It is manifest that, whilst the CSEW does reveal a high level of criminal activity in Britain, a volume of the crimes back tooth regarded as not honest enough to be include in authoritative statistics, and consequently should not solicitude the population. Although the legalistic position attempts to change the home of debate ring what crime in reality is, stating the about minute and least indeterminate interpretation of crime is that which defines it as behaviour which is veto by the criminal computer codification Coleman (2000), this however creates a capitulum on what is really be regarded as vile behaviour and tabu by the criminal code.Analysing the methods used in Britain to measuring stick crime establishes the accompaniment that criminal statistics are a social construction, establish not on a set of legal commentarys and laws, which poop be transferred surrounded by social groups and times, but on a harvesting of social offsetes. The process of scrape among an act, regarded as criminal, to the analogous act beingness punished contains a number of stages that film over the adjudicate to the apparent movement How much crime is there in Britain? It appears that the term authorized crime figures is or so preposterous in the position that if parliamentary procedure is basing its confirm opinion on these functionary figures, then it must(prenominal) take into account several(prenominal) exclusions in prescribe to get a more comprehensive perspective on what the data is very portraying. Although the figures resume the most just crimes in Britain they do not show the total picture.In this day and age more accent mark demand to be pose on the obligation of the criminal justice system and the bear on back to the definition of criminals in the first place. In particular, if crime is viewed from a labelling perspective, then the division that the legal system plays in the creation of crime is of great importation when measuring the true level of criminal activity in B ritain.In addition, setting inevitably to be disposed(p) to future prevention of crime and the standard of how impressive society is at removing or bring down certain categories of crime. In closing, I would argue that when state the question how much crime is there in Britain? it would be uninitiated to base any argumentation upon these official crime figures as they are simply indices of organisational processes Kitsuse and Cicourel (1963).