The Meaning of Human Existence Essay Example for Free

The Meaning of Human Existence Essay In both the Metamorphosis and The Stranger the authors focus on the irrationality of the universe and explore the insignificance of human life. Both of the novels main characters, Gregor (from the Metamorphosis) and Meursault (from The Stranger) live lives of silent desperation. In the Metamorphosis Franz Kafka introduces us to Gregor, an ordinary young business man supporting his unappreciative family. The startling element to this novel is that Gregor has just turned into a beetle. The Stranger by Albert Camus tells a story of a very physically different character, named Meursault, yet both books convey similar messages. Gregor and Meursault start out unaware of their circumstances however throughout each of the novels they become more aware and learn to accept their fate. The Metamorphosis begins where your typical story is at its climax; we have no idea how or why Gregor has made this physical transformation to a beetle. This is the principal expression of the irrationality that exists in the novel. Gregor resists this situation for which he has had no control over nor can he change. It is an unfortunate irony that Gregor cannot accept the fact that he is no longer a human, this is seen on page five when he says, In fact, Gregor felt fine, with the exception of his drowsiness, which was really unnecessary after sleeping so late How can this man wake up one morning, look into the mirror and see a giant bug staring back at him, and then carry on with his day as usual? This brings up a serious issue; Gregor wakes up and his only thought is of getting to work, there is nothing that is going to stop him from getting there, even waking up as a giant vermin. Throughout the novel Kafka presents us with a man obsessed with his profession, in search of his parents approval, jus t as many of us live day in and day out. Meursault does not face the same physical obstacles as Gregor but is similar in that he possesses neither rational thought nor lives in a rational world. He exists solely as a physical being, there is no thought or emotions put into his choices. When Meursault is hungry he eats, when he is tired he sleeps, when he needs a woman he goes to his girlfriend. This desire for physical relief is presented multiple times throughout the novel: I ate almost everything. She left at one oclock and I slept awhile. (Page 36) Meursault does not display any emotion or rationale; he doesnt stop question anything, just accepts life as it is and carries on. Meursaults predicament stems from his choice to shoot and kill an Algerian man. During his trial the prosecuting attorney questions Meursaults morality because he did not grieve appropriately for his mothers death. When he faces the attorneys interrogation he answers each question telling the truth and doesnt try to skew things. Meursault didnt mean to maliciously go out and kill the Arab man, he simply allows himself to fall into these immoral situations because of his lack of thought and consideration. The attorney is playing his game and attempts to fabricate a rational reason for his behavior, but in reality Meursault was simply irrational. Camus uses this situation to comment on the way that we try to rationalize every situation that we are faced with, but sometimes things happen without a reason. Camus takes a perspective similar to the scientific viewpoint, that as humans we do not know anything for certain except that we will die. We are born, live out our lives, repopulate and then die to be forgotten forever, but I dont think that this is how Kafka feels we are meant to function. In his novel family has more of a presence, Gregors family does not love him because of his character, but rather because he provides them with a comfortable lifestyle. He lives the busy working mans life because he has to if he is to receive any respect from his family. As humans we need to be loved and as the provider of his family this is the closest that Gregor gets. Gregor feels the responsibilities of being concerned for everyone but himself which is shown by this quote, So, to spare her even (his) sight, one day he carried the sheet on his back to the couch and arranged it in such a way that he was now completely covered up. He is willing to cover himself up so as that he doesnt upset his mother with h is appearance. There is something very wrong with this scenario; Kafka uses this extreme example not to tell us how to live our lives, but to simply show us that this is how we should not live. Family plays a very different role in Camus novel. All of Meursaults family is gone; his mother has just died so her expectations of him are non- existent. Albert Camus uses his mother, Maman, as a tool to tell us of the lack of importance that human life has. On page three Meursault says, Maman died today. Or yesterday maybe, I dont know. His mother was elderly, and he decided to place her in a retirement home because she had become an inconvenience to him; she had stopped talking not to mention the trouble of getting (her) to the bus, buying tickets, and spending two hours travelling. (Page 5) To Meursault there is no one person that he truly cares for besides himself, he even feels indifferent towards his girlfriend. Camus uses. Meursault symbolizes everyone in todays world, and uses this situation as a way of commenting on how our life is. Again, just as Kafka, Camus is not attempting to tell us that our lives are meaningless, but that this is how we are treating ourselves. We ne ed to make a cha nge to recognize that human existence is of greater importance than we give it credit. As both of the novels move along Gregor and Meursault slowly decay until their death. Both characters make a transformation or come to a realization. As the novel progresses Gregor moves away from his human tendencies and becomes more and more insect like, accepting and even embracing his insect qualities. The symbols for this are the references to his head, for example on page 22 He could not raise his head anymore. It is at this point that we can tell that Gregor has lost some kind of connection to humanity. This representation is repeated multiple times throughout the novel, each time the situation Gregor less and less resembles a human until he finally dies and is swept out with the trash. Meursault too comes to accept his situation and his fate as he awaits his execution with no optimism, yet content and at peace with himself because he is no longer a stranger. Our lives are indeed meaningless to a certain degree, we are on earth to perform our function and then die. Even the most distinguished of our generation will one day be forgotten as just another person trying to make their mark on the world, so why do we live our lives in search of control and the ability to make rational decisions. We live in an irrational world where the only thing we know for sure is that we will one day die. This was not quite what every person expects to hear as an answer to the meaning in life, but life becomes meaningful only because we perceive it to have a purpose. Reflect on your own life. Do not live from moment to moment without questioning who you are as it is better to live forty years of knowing who you are and what you are doing with your life than live 100 years without a thought of anyone else, because life is only what we make of it.

Gothic Architecture :: Architectural Middle Ages Churches Essays

Gothic Architecture The church in the Middle Ages was a place that all people, regardless of class, could belong to. As a source of unity, its influence on art and architecture was great during this time. As society drew away from the feudal system of the Romanesque period, a new spirit of human individualism began to take hold; alas, the birth of Gothic. Here, the Church became a place where humanity became more acceptable, alas becoming the ideal place to visual such new ideals. The beauty and elegance of Gothic architecture is depicted most in the great cathedrals of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries—St. Denis, Notre Dame, Chartres, Salisbury, Durham, Amiens, and more. The experience of looking at one of the great gothic cathedrals is to look up towards God. Indeed, most Gothic structures emphasize the vertical, drawing one’s eyes upwards toward the heavens with the awesomeness of God. These cathedrals were built with towering spires, pointed arches and flying buttresses giving impressi ons of harmony and luminosity. One of the major accomplishments of the 12th and 13th centuries was to develop the engineering mastery of the ribbed vault, pointed arch and flying buttress to create a great cathedral that is at once taller, lighter, wider, and more elegant than the ones before. Even though the pointed arch could support more weight than its predecessors, there was still the problem of finding a way to support the heavy masonry ceiling vaults over wide spans. In order to support the outward thrust of barrel vaults, vertical support walls have to be very thick and heavy. What makes possible the extensive use of ribbed vaulting and pointed arches to â€Å"open† and â€Å"lighten† the walls and space of the cathedral is the flying buttress—â€Å"an arched bridge above the aisle roof that extends from the upper nave wall, where the lateral thrust of the main vault is greatest, down to a solid pier.† [Jansen, History of Art, p. 407]. The effect is to add structural strength and solidity to the building. The visual appearance of changes from the Early and Later or High Gothic are clear, as each cathedral became increasingly narrower and taller. For instance, compare the nave elevations of Notre-Dame to Amiens [Text, fig. 442, p. 333], the pointed arches of Amiens are significantly taller and narrower than the much earlier Notre Dame. The mastery of the flying buttress allowed medieval builders to construct taller and more elegant looking buildings with more complex ground plans.

Quality Child Care Matters

Mother’s have quite the dilemma when deciding when and if to return to work after giving birth to a child. Sometimes the choice is made for them due to financial reasons and sometimes they have the luxury of deciding on which is the best scenario for themselves and their families. In trying to make this decision, mothers may wonder if and how their absence and the choice of child care will affect their child. In all the years I have spend in early childhood education and child care, I think I have probably seen all of the â€Å"scenarios† and know that there is no one right answer. Each situation is different and there are so many variables, even within each variable, but the evidence is so vast that there are certainly findings to please almost everyone (Belsky, 2009, p. 1). In my research on this delicate topic, I have come to the conclusion that the only two factors that can predict positive outcomes for children’s later development is the combination of child care quality and healthy family attachments and support. As you will see, there are so many variables and each plays into the other, but safe and secure relationships at home and in child care are the winning factors in this decades long debate. There are two well-known pieces of data that have been gathered which researchers have utilized throughout the years to study the effects of maternal employment on later development. The first was conducted by the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) and began in 1979. The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 12, 686 young men and women who were 12-22 years old when they were first surveyed in 1979. These individuals were interviewed annually through 1994 and are currently interviewed on a biennial basis† (US Dept. f Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www. bls. gov/nls/y79summary. htm, para. 1). In 1986, the NLSY79 was used as â€Å"a separate survey of all children born to NLSY79 female respondents† to conduct more child-specific information† (US Dept. of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www. bls. gov/nls/nlsy79ch. htm, para. 8). Researchers such as Jay Belsky (1988) first utilized the NLSY79 data to study the effects of early and extensive maternal employment. Belsky, etc al. oncluded â€Å"that children who had initiated care for 30 or more hours per week in their first year and whose care at this level continued through their preschool years evinced poorer academic and social functioning than did children whose full-time care began sometime later – and that this was true whether one looked at teacher reports, parent reports, peer reports, or the children’s own self-reports† (Belsky & Eggebeen, 1991, p. 1084). There were some problems with this early research and the data that was used to interpret outcomes. One of the problems was that the two groups studied (maternal employment and non-maternal employment) were too different in so many ways. â€Å"One of the most difficult methodological issues in studying this causal process is the fact that there are substantial differences between women who work soon after their child is born and women who do not† (Hill, Waldfogel, Brooks-Gunn, & Wen-Jui, 2005, p. 834). Another problem with this wave of research was that â€Å"the effects of different features of the child-care experience, particularly the quality of the care, the amount or quality of care, and the type of care† (Belsky, Vandell, Burchinal, et al. 2007, p. 682) were not taken into account at the same time. Prior research â€Å"examined one or another feature of the child-care experience, but never all three† (Belsky, Vandell, Burchinal, et al. , 2007, p. 682). The second wave of research was based on more specific data â€Å"to examine the concurrent, long-term , and cumulative influences of variations in early child care experiences on the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical development of infants and toddlers† (Friedman, NICHD, 1992, p. 1. . These researchers were interested not only in the effects of child-care, but the â€Å"endurance of effects† (Belsky, Vandell, & Burchinal, 2007, p. 682). They continued to follow up with children from 4 ? – 11 years of age. This goal of this study was â€Å"accomplished through the implementation of a study design that takes into account the complex concurrent, long-term and cumulative interactions among characteristics of the family and home, of the child care environments, and of the child† (Friedman, 1992, p. 6). Researchers such as Jennifer Hill and Jane Waldfogel (2005) utilized the NICHD data to determine the effects of maternal employment with easier access to more varied situations. They broke up their results into four categories – Comparisons Between Worked After First Year and Never Worked, Comparisons Between Worked Part Time in the First Year and Did Not Work Until After the First Year, Comparisons Between Worked Full Time in the First Year Versus Did Not Work Until After the First Year, and Comparisons Between Worked Full Time in the First Year Versus Worked Part Time in the First Year (pp. 839-842). These researchers concluded that â€Å"negative effects of maternal employment on children’s cognitive outcomes were found in our analyses primarily for children whose mothers were employed full time in the first year postbirth as compared with children whose mothers postponed work until after their child’s first year of life and also as compared with mothers who worked part time in the first year. Negative effects in terms of increased externalizing behavioral problems were evident in each of these comparisons involving mothers who worked full time in the first year† (Hill, Waldfogel, Brooks-Gunn, and Hann, 2005, p. 44). Although the use of the NICHD study did allow researchers to analyze the data utilizing more correlations between diverse situations, there is even later research that delves even deeper into the mixed bag of maternal work situations, family dynamics, home-life, child-care situations, etc. Heather Joshi, et al. , extended the studies even furthe r by including events such as, â€Å"additional information concerning the types of jobs that they return to: are these jobs routinized or do they provide a degree of autonomy† (2008, p. ). Also included in these studies is the â€Å"interactions between our maternal employment measures and additional maternal characteristics and behaviors† and the â€Å"differences by gender† (Joshi, Cooksey, Verropoulou, Menaghan, & Tzavidis, 2008, p. 2). The results of these more recent studies lend â€Å"only limited support to negative effect of mother’s employment per se during infancy and the pre-school years on later child well-being† (Joshi, Cooksey, Verropoulou, Menaghan, & Tzavidis, 2008, p. ). The extent and expansion of variables for research surrounding maternal employment continues to grow. Joshi, et al. , are currently working on expanding on their set of â€Å"both maternal employment and maternal/family background variables† Joshi, Cooksey, Verropoulou, Menaghan, & Tzavidis, 2008, p. 3) which should be completed sometime in 2009 (the results for which I have not yet been able to locate). There are four questions that have motivated current research on this topic. They have been identified as: Does extensive child care in the first year of life disrupt attachment between mother and child, what is the influence of varying types of in child care quality on children’s development, do long hours spent in child-care add to later behavior problems, and what are the effects of the types of child-care that are available? Mother-Child Attachment The earliest studies surrounding maternal employment and attachment came up with many mixed results which is one of the main reasons that the NICHD decided to begin their own study (1986). Assessment of the mother-child attachment relationship is made using various measures, including the Strange Situation† (Friedman, NICHD, 1992, p. 12). The Strange Situation was a psychological study designed by Mary D. Ainsworth which consisted â€Å"of eight episodes presented in a standardized order for all subjects† (1978, pp. 32-33) which tested the reactions of children, ages 12 – 18 months, w hilst in the presence of mother only, mother-stranger, stranger only, and alone (including the return of mother during each separation from her). According to the NICHD, â€Å"there were no significant main effects of child-care experience (quality, amount, age of entry, stability, or type of care) on attachment security or avoidance† and there were â€Å"significant main effects of maternal sensitivity and responsiveness† (NICHD, 1997, https://secc. rti. org/abstracts. cfm? abstract=9). These negative affects in attachment were also amplified when â€Å"combined with poor quality child care, more than minimal amounts of child care, or more than one care arrangement† (NICHD, 1997, https://secc. ti. org/abstracts. cfm? abstract=9). Child Care Quality The quality of the child-care of a child proves to be one of the most important factors when addressing the impact of child-care on child development. When assessing the impact of child-care quality, it is important to look at child-staff ratio, group size, and caregiver education and/or training. The quality of the interactions between caregivers and children, between peers, as well as how caregivers facilitate these interactions is also a tremendous indicator of child-care quality. According to the NICHD, children who experience high-quality child-care have higher scores on achievement and language tests, show fewer behavioral issues and better social skills. Programs like the federally funded Head Start can also function as an intervention for children from at-risk families/situations. In 2007, Belsky conducted a study based on the NICHD findings and concluded â€Å"that quality and type of care remained associated with children’s vocabulary and problem behavior† (2007, p. 297). In a 2002 study (also based on NICHD), researchers Hill, Waldfogel, & Brooks-Gunn concluded that children who participated in no non-maternal care and home-based, non-maternal care â€Å"would have gained the most from high quality center-based care and moreover, would have more consistently remained the bulk of these benefits overtime† (2002, p. 1). Hours Spent in Child Care Although the findings seem to be mixed, there is some evidence that the amount of hours spent in child care may be a cause for some behavior problems, namely aggressive behavior. The NICHD researchers (Belsky, Hill), did conclude that â€Å"children with more experience in child-care centers were rated by their teachers as showing somewhat more disruptive behavior in sixth grade† (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, n. d. , p. 2), but more recent research (Joshi, Cooksey, et al. ) explored â€Å"various interactions between our maternal employment measures and additional maternal characteristics and behaviors† (2008, p. 2) to be added risk factors for behavioral issues. Type of Child Care There are also mixed findings in the effects of the type of child care situation a young child experiences. I feel rather strongly that a primary caregiver relationship is best for the young infants entering child care (whether it be in a more formal, group care setting or a private situation). Unfortunately most group child care programs do not offer a primary caregiver model which definitely contributes to the disorganization and unpredictability of the care that a child receives. With a primary care model, caregivers can â€Å"promote a stronger attachment than might happen if attachment were left to chance or if all the caregivers relate to the whole group without differentiation† (Gonzalez-Mena, 2007, p. 49). Penelope Leach, et al. also state that â€Å"children who experience greater caregiver stability while attending early years settings have been found to have more secure relationships with their caregivers and to show higher degrees of social competence† (2008, p. 180). When child care provider implement practices that support child development (whether it be group care of private care), the results are positive. What it all seems to come down to is that the effects of maternal employment are complex and vary from family to family, child care situation to child care situation, and parental style/characteristics. The NICHD researchers clearly suggest that â€Å"we seek to move beyond the determination of possible risks that may be presented by child care as a unitary category. Rather, we want to find out how the effects of non-maternal care vary as a function of different variables such as child care quality, the extent of its use, characteristics of the children and of their family and home† (Friedman, NICHD, 1992, p. 10). These factors combined with family income/education and child gender make for a very complicated study. One factor seems to influence the other and there are so many variables. The one thing that does stand out in all of the research is that developmental outcomes are dependent upon the quality of child care and family dynamics. When a child is feeling supported by both his/her parents and the people that care for him/her, the outcomes are favorable. Quality child care programs support cognitive, physical, social-emotional development, but unfortunately so many families do not have access to these programs due to their lack of availability and the high cost of most quality programs. A proof in point is that I am currently a private child care provider and due to my expertise, I am able to charge higher rates than others in my field, but only families that can afford these rates are able to hire me. The sad thing is that â€Å"a national study of 100 child care centers found that 92% of them provided inadequate care to infants† and â€Å"it was reported that two in five centers were rated less than minimal† (FSU Center for Prevention & Early Intervention Policy, http://www. peip. fsu. edu/resourceFiles/resourceFile_81. pdf). Keep in mind that these figures are based on child care centers with varied tuition rates in various parts of the county. Those numbers are just staggering and unacceptable, but make perfect sense when you take into account that child care providers are usually not professionally trained or minimally trained and receive very low wages. Teacher training and regulations on child care centers are getting stricter which is a good si gn. More and more mothers are returning to work and it is only cost effective that the investments we make in early child care practices will result in better adjusted and academically successful children in the years to come. References Ainsworth, M. (1978). Patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the strange situation Philadelphia: Laurence Earlbaum Associates, Inc. Belsky, J. & Eggebeen, D. (1991, January 1). Early and extensive maternal employment and young children’s socioemotional development: children of the national longitudinal survey of youth. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(4), 1083-98. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ440714). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. Belsky, J. , Vandell, D. , Burchinal, M. , Clark-Stewart, K. , McCartney, K. , & Owen, M. (2007, March 1). Are there long-term effects of early child care?. Child Development, 78(2), 681-701, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ756658). Retrieved August 15 From ERIC database. Belsky, J. (2009, March). Effects of child care on development. Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues. Birkbeck University of London. Gonzalez-Mena, J. Infants, toddlers, and caregivers. Boston: McGraw-Hill. FSU Center for Prevention & Early Intervention Policy. (n. d. ). Research on quality child care For infants and toddlers. Retrieved August 25, 2009 from https://www. cpeip. fsu. edu. Hill, J. , Waldfogel, J. , & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002, September 1). Different effects of high quality Care. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 21(4), 601-627. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ772831). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. Hill, J. , Waldfogel, J. , Brooks-Gunn, J. , & Han, W. (2005, November 1). Maternal employment and child development: a fresh look using newer methods. Developmental Psychology, 41(6), 833-850. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ733669). Retrieved August 25, 2009. Joshi, H. , University of London, Cooksey, E. , The Ohio State University, Verropoulou, G. , University of Piraeus, Menaghan, E, The Ohio State University, & Tzavidis, N. , University of Manchester. (2008). Combining childrearing with work: do maternal employment experiences compromise child development. Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://iussp2009. princeton. edu/download. aspx? submissionId=92322. Leach, P. Barnes, J. , Malmberg, L. , Sylva, K. , & Stein, A. (2008, February 1). The quality of different types of child care at 10 and 18 months: a comparison between types and factors related to quality. Early Child Development and Care, 178(2), 177-209. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EJ782856). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. Motherhood-extent and effects of maternal employment. (n. d. ). Retrieved August 26, 2009 from http://family. jrank. org/pages/1187/Motherhood-Extent-Effects-Maternal- Employment. html National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. Scientific briefs: how early child care affects later development. (2007). Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://www. developingchild. net. The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care: A comprehensive Longitudinal Study of Young Children’s Lives. (1992, June 1). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED353087). Retrieved August 15, 2009 from ERIC database. NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1987). The effects of infant child care on infant- Mother attachment security: results of the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Child Development, 68.

Analysis Of The Harlem Renaissance, African American Poets

During the introduction of the Harlem Renaissance, African American poets started to gain popularity for their works. The works of African American poets were seen to be uninfluential to the genre of poetry due to the difference of addressed issues. Poets of African American decent did not only address issues of the sex, but also race, colorism, and class. Though fighting for some of the same issues, black poets had issues on a different spectrum from white poets. The emergence of Womanist derived from the different attitudes and issues between black poets and their white counterparts. Colorism amongst black was mentioned commonly amongst the works of African American poets. Colorism, which is discrimination based the color of skin, was†¦show more content†¦Clifton describes what she would look like as a white person, â€Å"hair a flutter of / fall leaves / circling my perfect / line of a nose / no lips / no behind† (Gilbert, 1121). At the end of the poem, Clifton wa kes up from a dream and her dream confirmed that she does not need to be white to feel accepted and beautiful. Her race gives her that satisfaction, â€Å"and i’m wearing white history but there’s no future in those clothes so i take them off and wake up dancing. (Gilbert, 1121). The works of Gwendolyn Brooks addresses issues in the African American community. Brooks mentions issues including racial identity, political consciousness, and feminism. In her poem, The Mother, Brooks discusses her experience with abortion. Abortions were viewed as one of the most horrific things a woman can do. Society viewed women who had abortions as monsters, which resulted into shaming. Women had to keep abortions secret or to lie if they were to remain with a good reputation, â€Å"Is faulty: oh, what shall I say, how is the truth to be said? You were born, you had body, you died. It is just that you never giggled or planned or cried†. (Gilbert, 781) Brook’s uses various poetic techniques to get her poems across to people. Poetic techniques are used to keep readers engaged and interested in the poem. In the poem, We Real Cool, she uses alliteration, rhyme, rhythm, consonance, and assonance, â€Å"We real cool. We LeftShow MoreRelatedReoccurring Themes in the Work of Langston Hughes Essay1649 Words   |  7 PagesLangston Hughes is an extremely successful and well known black writer who emerged from the Harlem Renaissance (â€Å"Langston Hughes† 792). He is recognized for his poetry and like many other writers from the Harlem Renaissance, lived most of his life outside of Harlem (â€Å"Langston Hughes† 792). His personal experiences and opinions inspire his writing intricately. Unlike other writers of his time, Hughes expresses his discontent with black oppression and focuses on the hardships of his people. 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Joseph Stalin Research Paper - 1472 Words

World leaders are leaders with high governmental power in the world. Every leader, not just world leaders, is either great or corrupt; they are rarely both. Most of Russia’s history is filled with corrupt leaders. Joseph was one of those leaders. Stalin killed millions of people during his rule. But Stalin also led the Soviet Union almost to the top in world power. Stalin had many influences that led him to his Soviet Leadership in which gave him many admirers but even more non-supporters. At the age of 10, Joseph â€Å"Stalin† Djugashvili attended Gori’s religious elementary school. His mother, Yekaterina, wanted him to be a priest and would usually beat her son if he son whenever he misbehaved. These beatings were never as bad as those†¦show more content†¦The Russian’s loss in the Russo-Japanese war was the another way that they got the public to turn against the provisional government and strengthen the communist revolt. The revolt got stronge r and stronger until the Bolsheviks finally revolted and took down the Russian Provisional Government. Because of this, civil war erupted all over the country. At the end of this war, in 1920, the Bolsheviks set up the USSR, or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, under control of Vladimir Lenin. When Lenin died, Stalin aggressively worked his way up until he was the leader of the USSR. In his control, Stalin set up a â€Å"5 year plan† to advance the Russian economy from just farming to also having industry. In this plan, he would also advance the military and â€Å"cleanse the country of villains† or those he saw as villains. To â€Å"cleanse the country†, Stalin would have unfair trials that would have many on trial at once. These were called his â€Å"Show Trials†. The majority, if not all, of these people were found guilty and sent for execution. They were executed all at once, and the executions were called the Purges. To advance the Russian economy , Stalin would work the farmers to death†¦ literally. When the farmers revolted, Stalin stopped sending them food and even more died from starvation. On the last of the purges, 16 men were put on trial and accused of acts of terrorism towards Stalin and the Soviet government. Two of them were Stalin’s allies after Lenin’s death, Zinovyev andShow MoreRelated Postion Paper: Who Was More Carzed Stalin Or Hitler1586 Words   |  7 PagesCrazed: Stalin or Hitler? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The obviously more crazed man was Joseph Stalin. Stalin was more crazed because over his time and rule, he killed millions upon millions more people that Hitler. Joseph Stalin is also more crazed because he did not kill other people he was racist against, but simply because he wanted to kill. 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Othello, Race, and the Effect on Character Essay - 2104 Words

With the influx of trade during the Elizabethan Era, English society encountered an increase of descriptions and encounters with people from remote countries, including Africa. With these happenstances, brought misunderstandings of people and cultures, therefore race and discriminations began to form. Shakespeare’s protagonist in Othello, a Moor, was affected by societal standards in his ability to develop as an individual because of physical characteristics and internal insecurities because of the conflict, which tears him between two cultures. In the mid-sixteenth century, England began encountering Native West Africans. Their appearance in London began as early as 1554 and by 1601, which led Elizabeth I to convey her displeasure†¦show more content†¦Pory’s translation depicts Leo as a noble Moor, seasoned traveler, Christian convert, and former slave. Othello’s ethnicity becomes fundamental because of how he is personified, by both others and hims elf (Berry 315-318). The opening scene of Othello begins not with the title character, but with Iago and Rodrigo’s derogatory remarks about Othello. Iago compares the Moor to â€Å"an old black ram† (1.1.89), a Barbary horse† (1.1.112), and refers to the consummation of his marriage to Desdemona as â€Å"making the beast with two backs† (1.1.117-118). Rodrigo refers to the relationship between Othello and Desdemona as a â€Å"gross revolt† (1.1.135) and about her being in â€Å"the gross clasp of the lascivious Moor† (1.1.127). Before Othello even appears, he is denoted as dreadful, deceitful, lustful, and inhuman, qualities, which he will reflect on himself and his counterparts, Iago and Desdemona. Brabantio shares in the racial sentiment of Iago and Rodrigo when he learns of his daughter’s marriage to the Moor. Othello’s misunderstood culture brings Brabantio to the conclusion that a â€Å"foul thief† (1.2.62) must have stolen his daugh ter by the use of witchcraft. 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Digital marketing impact on consumer buying behavior free essay sample

Marketers are learning how regular contacting affects the building and sustaining of customer relationships. The dominant logic of marketing is shifting from the exchange of goods toward service, interactivity, connectivity and ongoing relationships (Vargo and Lusch 2004). Technological innovations, new channels, and changing media environments facilitate this shift (Bhattacharya and Bolton 2000), and the question of how firms should interact with their customers is gaining in importance, especially as firms consider the cost differences between traditional communications media, such as television and sales forces, and electronic media, such as the Web and email (Reinartz et al. 2005). The cost efficiency and interactivity of digital channels facilitate ongoing dialogue between the enterprise and the customer (see e. g. Deighton and Barwise 2000; Peppers and Rogers 2004). Marketers can now be in touch with their customers on a more frequent basis and increase the level of personalization and interactivity with low or non-excessive cost. Our main claim is that being frequently in touch with customers should help achieve positive effects on customer loyalty. For instance, customers can be offered additional information and brand communication when buying products or when using them. This can include newsletters, maintenance and repurchase reminders, help for keeping their products up-to-date, and tools for interacting with friends and peers. For example, Lensmart sends their customers email reminders when they expect customers to start running out of their supply of contact lenses. Lensmart uses database and purchase information to predict the repurchase moment and produce the personalized email. This way Lensmart can sell cost-effectively to their existing customers, and automate the re-selling process. While Lensmart gains in decreased sales costs, this kind of reminder also adds value to the customer. It may strengthen customer loyalty as customers feel that Lensmart takes care of their stock and assists them to repurchase at the right time with low effort. Customers might perceive emotional value for being personally remembered and cared, and appreciate the extra service (see e. g. Cram 2001). For being regularly in touch with customers is also one of the central ideas of CRM. Recent studies have found that the relational information processes of CRM (regular communication, information collection, etc. ) play a vital role in enhancing an organization’s customer relationship performance (Jayachandran et al. 2005). Furthermore, the use of CRM applications is positively associated with improved customer knowledge and improved customer 4 satisfaction (Mithas et al. 2005). Reinartz and Kumar (2003) show how profitable customer lifetime duration is positively related to the number of mailing efforts of the company. Simulations show that to maximize customer profitability by optimising spending the dominant form of communication should be email (Reinartz et al. 2005). While email is substantially cheaper to send than conventional direct mail, research also suggests that it can deliver significantly better response rates (Brondmo 2000; Di Ianni 2000; Rosenspan 2000). That is, from a company point of view, digital channels offer cost efficient opportunities for a brand to keep frequently in touch with customers which not only improves marketing performance, but particularly customer loyalty. With such prospects in mind, it is not surprising that the use of digital channels in marketing is becoming an essential part of strategy in many companies. Car manufacturers use the Internet and email to launch new models, as well as engaging their customers into interaction on their web sites and with email. BMW uses a mobile portal to distinguish itself from its competitors, providing customers pictures of new models, games, and service. Nike targets the youth segment by launching a digital spring fashion show, which allows consumers to use the brand’s latest fashion catalogue online to create their own looks and photos, and a virtual identity (Hargrave-Silk 2005). Canon iMage Gateway helps consumers share their digital photos with friends online. L’Oreal’s brand Lancome uses email newsletters to keep in touch with customers and hence strengthen their brand loyalty (Merisavo and Raulas 2004). Magazine publishers can activate and drive their customers into the Internet with email and SMS messages to improve resubscription rate (Merisavo et al. 2004). Such interaction and low cost communication with customers increases the effectiveness compared with traditional direct marketing efforts that publishers have used to win orders. In line with Fournier’s (1998) ideas, marketers increasingly bring brands closer to consumers’ everyday life. The changing role of customers as co-producers of value is becoming increasingly important (Prahalad and Ramaswamy 2004). Interactivity in digital media offers customers better options to search for information, work as initiators, and get help. Interactivity also offers customers new ways to spend time with a brand, like playing games, participating in an activity on a website, or learning about the product or service they are using. This is what Canon pursues with iMage Gateway service, which can lead to improved customer involvement and satisfaction. Interactivity also provides marketers with more information about customer needs, preferences and interests. 5 Furthermore, interactive and virtual brand communities, like those built by Harley Davidson and Ducati, bring consumers with specific interests together from different geographic areas to strengthen their brand loyalty (McAlexander et al. 2002; Wind et al. 2002, 97). McDonald’s uses online channel to reinforce brand messages and relationships. They have focused their online community building on communities for children, such as the Happy Meal web site with educative and entertaining games (Rowley 2004). Digital channels also contain opportunities and tools for personalization. By using digital channels, customers can actively create or shape the form of brand communication, for example by stating their channel and content preferences. Likewise, marketers can create more personal brand communication based on customers’ behavior and preferences, which can increase the effectiveness of brand communication by making customers perceive it as more relevant and interesting, and wanting to maintain a relationship with the marketer (Simonson 2005). As Simonson notes about customized offers; â€Å"If successful, marketers will be rewarded for the superior value they provide with higher customer loyalty. † (see also Peppers and Rogers 1997, 177). For example, L? Oreal’s CRM initiative aims to enhance personal communications with customers by analytical profiling, segmentation, database build and design, and bolstered data gathering (Brown 2003). This way L? Oreal seeks to increase the return on investment and capitalise on their customer insight for the long term. Despite the growing use of digital channels in marketing and the evolving research around it, there are few models for explaining the mechanism of how digital marketing communication works from a relationship marketing perspective, especially for enhancing customer loyalty. Ideas have been suggested in many areas of marketing literature. Relationship marketing (RM), customer relationship management (CRM), as well as brand management and service literature emphasize the importance of building and managing customer relationships, and offer useful models to understand how customer relationships develop. Also consumer behavior, advertising, direct marketing, and e-marketing literature give insight into how digital channels can be used to communicate with customers in order to enhance customer loyalty. The objective of this paper is to draw together previous research into an integrative conceptual model for understanding how digital marketing communication affects customer loyalty. In the following, we first define digital marketing communication. We then present and describe the model. Next we examine in more detail the components of the model and the theories behind 6 it, and construct research propositions. The paper concludes with a discussion and suggestions for future research. 2 DEFINITION OF DIGITAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION The use of digital channels to strengthen customer loyalty has received surprisingly little attention, despite the obvious opportunities for using these channels to keep in touch and serve customers cost-effectively. It seems like the concept of â€Å"digital marketing† has been used more operationally, while the theoretical understanding and comprehensive models of how and why to use different digital channels are still developing. Despite the growing use of ICT in marketing, there are few definitions of digital marketing. Urban (2004, 2) suggests that â€Å"Digital marketing uses the Internet and information technology to extend and improve traditional marketing functions. † This is a broad definition, concerning all of the traditional 4 P’s, and both customer acquisition and retention. We also acknowledge that terms like â€Å"interactive marketing,† â€Å"one-to-one marketing,† and â€Å"e-marketing† are close to digital marketing, but neither are they defined very precisely. Coviello, Milley and Marcolin (2001, 26) have defined e-marketing as â€Å"using the Internet and other interactive technologies to create and mediate dialogue between the firm and identified customers. † They also consider emarketing as a subset of e-commerce. In their view, more than creating discrete transactions, emarketing is focused on managing continuous IT-enabled relationships with customers by creating dialogue and interactivity. In this paper we focus mainly on the communication function of digital marketing, and how it helps to enhance the loyalty of existing customers. Hence, in this paper we refer to digital marketing communication (DMC) as communication and interaction between a company or brand and its customers using digital channels (e. g. the Internet, email, mobile phones, and digital TV) and information technology. This definition appreciates that communication can be two-way, initiated by either the marketer or the customer. Communication can be general messages to a larger audience or personalized messages. A customer relationship aspect acknowledges that communication can also include relational and service elements (e. g. news, reminders, tips), not just advertising and offers aiming for immediate purchasing transactions. That is, in addition to increasing sales DMC can be used to enhance customer loyalty in the long term. 7 3 AN INTEGRATIVE MODEL OF THE EFFECTS OF DIGITAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION ON CUSTOMER LOYALTY In this section we draw together previous research into an integrative conceptual model for understanding how digital marketing communication affects customer loyalty. Figure 1 proposes an integrative model of the effects of digital marketing communication on customer loyalty. FIGURE 1 An Integrative Model of the Effects of Digital Marketing Communication on Customer Loyalty MEDIATORS: CUSTOMER CHARACTERISTICS, INVOLVEMENT, RELATIONSHIP, SITUATIONAL FACTORS MODERATORS PERSONALIZATION †¢Content †¢Timing †¢Channels BRAND COMMUNICATION †¢Frequency †¢Content INTERACTIVITY †¢Functions †¢Processes †¢Perceptions †¢Time spent with a brand OUTCOMES INFORMATION PROCESSING MEANS PERCEIVED VALUE †¢Functional †¢Economic †¢Emotional †¢Social and self-expressive †¢Epistemic COMMITMENT †¢Affective commitment †¢Continuance commitment CUSTOMER LOYALTY †¢Behavioral loyalty -Purchases -Product/service usage -Store/website visits -Recommendation †¢Attitudinal loyalty -Brand attitudes -Brand image -Brand knowledge -Satisfaction -Service perceptions COMPANY CUSTOMER CHANNELS The model consists of means (brand communication via different channels), moderators (personalization and interactivity), outcomes (perceived value, commitment, and customer loyalty), and mediators (customer characteristics, involvement, relationship, and situational factors). By â€Å"brand communication† we refer to communication between the brand and customers. This can include advertising, direct marketing, newsletters, or consumer’s activity 8 in a brand community. This complies the view that the process of building brands and customer relationships is much more than traditional media advertising of (see e. g. Aaker and Joachimsthaler 2000, 42; Duncan and Moriarty 1998). The main focus in our model is on how brand communication affects customer loyalty. Two main factors in brand communication that are expected to affect customer loyalty are frequency (e. g. how many brand messages) and content (e. g. promotional or relational). The main outcome, customer loyalty is divided into behavioral (e. g. purchases) and attitudinal loyalty (e. g. brand attitudes). For true customer loyalty to exist, a pattern of repeat purchase must be accompanied by a positive attitude (see Jakoby and Chestnut 1978). This distinguishes it from spurious loyalty, where only behavioral loyalty is detected with low relative attitudes (Dick and Basu 1994). We acknowledge that different elements of DMC can influence both types of loyalty. Brand communication can also be personalized. For example, customer profiles or preferences can be used to create customized message content for different segments or individual customers, sent via their preferred channels. This should increase the value of communication to the customer. We have identified content, timing, and channels to be the personalized elements. Furthermore, brand contacts can be interactive; customers can search for information, make inquiries, give feedback and engage in various other activities with marketers or other customers. This can likewise have positive effect on customer loyalty. We have divided interactivity into functions (e. g. a web contact form), processes (e. g. that messages are contingent upon previous messages), perceptions (how customers perceive interactivity), and time spent with a brand (e. g. playing games on brand’s website). The effects of brand communication are constructed in customers’ minds through information processing, leading to perceived value and commitment. Finally, the effects of brand communication on customer loyalty can be detected from behavior and attitudes: e. g. purchases, website visits, brand attitudes, and satisfaction. There are also mediating factors that affect how the loyalty effects of DMC are created. For instance, a message received in a specific situation can be perceived as more valuable. One example to demonstrate the model is General Motors’s internet-based owner center My GMLink (www. mygmlink. com), which offers customers a single location to manage all postpurchase needs. With the use of this information and service portal, customer-brand 9 communication and interactivity are increased because customers are able to visit the website anytime, anywhere more often than stores. This way, the frequency of brand communication is increased, with the positive moderating role of interactivity. Customers also get different types of value from services like email service reminders, maintenance tips, seasonal safety tips, and special privileges and offers. GM also provides personalized information to customers. For example, they can check the current resale value estimate of their own car and determine the optimal time for selling it, which brings economic value. This can also lead to a shorter buying or trading cycle for cars. When customers get used to visiting the website regularly they may become emotionally attached to it, which builds commitment. Overall, customers’ increased brand contacts by using My GMLink service possibly strengthen GM’s customer relationships with more sales, and enhanced attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. Next we examine in more detail the components of the model and theories behind it, and construct research propositions. We first discuss the effects of regular brand communication on customers, and then examine the additional effects of personalization and interactivity, and finally examine how to measure the outcomes of DMC on customer loyalty. 3. 1 Regular Brand Communication – Benefits of Being in Touch with Customers 3. 1. 1 Frequency The frequency of marketing communication and its effects on customer relationships has gained interest in recent studies. Reinartz and Kumar (2003) found that the number of mailing efforts of a company is positively related to profitable customer lifetime duration. Indeed, being regularly in touch with customers has positive effects on their loyalty. For example, regular e-mailings have positive effects on brand attitudes, purchases and loyalty (DuFrene 2005; Merisavo and Raulas 2004). Similarly, the usage of mobile services and receiving of mobile advertising messages are found to have positive effects on consumers’ brand relationships and long-term purchase behaviour (Merisavo et al. 2006; Nysveen et al. 2005). These results imply that the strategic focus of ongoing brand communication via digital channels should be in creating meaningful brand encounters and deepening consumer-brand relationships, not just in seeking additional sales. This proposition is, for sure, not a new one in marketing as the frequency of marketing communication has been a central research topic. The 10 findings on the effects of frequency thus provide one established base for building the theory of DMC. The rationale behind frequently communicating with customers has been addressed in numerous advertising studies. Regular communication is important, as it has been found that 90% of the cumulative effects of advertising on sales occurs within 3 to 9 months of the advertisement (Clarke 1976; Leone 1995). A central finding is that repeating messages or objects to consumers will translate into awareness and learning, possibly more positive attitudes toward the object, and eventually result in action (Broussard 2000; Crowder 1976; Howard-Brown 1998; Sawyer 1973; Zajonc and Markus 1982; Zielske 1959). Moreover, the repetition of messages is effective only to an extent; the positive effects of repetition increase up to a certain level until the advertisement starts to wear-out. After this point it no longer has an effect or the effect is negative. That is, the relationship between repetition and advertising effects typically takes the shape of an inverted ‘U’ (Batra and Ray 1986; Cacioppo and Petty 1980; Ray and Swayer 1971; Venkatesan and Kumar 2004;). Similarly, DuFrene et al. (2005) have found the positive effects of email campaigns on customers’ band attitudes diminish over time after the first three messages. However, the focus of advertising and campaigns is often on the short-term and immediate results. More research is needed concerning the long-term effects of ongoing brand communication. 3. 1. 2 Information Processing Consumers engage in brand relationships to simplify buying and consuming tasks, to process information, and to maintain cognitive consistency and a state of psychological comfort and gratification (Sheth and Parvatiyar 1995). It has been found that previously presented stimuli are easier to encode and process than are novel or unfamiliar stimuli, which is interpreted by the individual as liking (Bornstein and D’Agostino 1994). That is, increased frequency helps consumers to process brand communication. Repeated exposure to brand communication also enhances brand attitudes by allowing the customer to process more information (Berger and Mitchell, 1989). Also, messages that become familiar through repetition have a tendency to be perceived as more valid (Bacon 1979; Hasher et al. 1977). Repetition also has effects on customer loyalty. It has been found that learning and increased positive experiences with a certain brand decrease the search for information about alternative brands (Dick and Basu 11 1994; Newman and Staelin 1972). A similar finding is that the more attributes associated with a brand the more loyal the customer (Romaniuk and Sharp 2003). Furthermore, when a consumer spends time with a brand and processes information, positive affective responses (emotions, feelings, moods, primary affect, satisfaction) about the brand are evoked in the consumer’s mind (Dick and Basu 1994). In the literature, this information processing is also described as cognitive loyalty, a phase where information on the brand at attribute performance level is the dominant driver of loyalty (Oliver 1999). Later, if the consumer is satisfied, affective effects start to build. 3. 1. 3 Brand Relationship Brand literature shows how frequent communication has positive effects on customers’ brand loyalty, and customer-brand relationships are deepened (Aaker 1996; Kapferer 1998). The development of customer-brand relationships can be described as a process of communication. For instance, Barnes (2001, 259-261) suggests that a brand can be conceptualized as moving through four stages on its journey from being merely a name to being a genuine relationship partner: The following development path has been suggested: brand awareness (using advertising to make customers in the target segment aware of the brand) brand characteristics (associating the brand with certain characteristics and positioning it against competitors) brand personality (attaching personality traits to the brand that are appreciated by the consumer) brand relationships (the brand becomes important in the life of the consumer). That is, a marketer who is frequently in contact with its customers should recognize the different requirements of communication to customers in different stages of the relationship. Our thinking aligns with modern brand theory’s ideas of how brand relationships are developed. When consumers are regularly in contact with a brand, they may begin to perceive it as a person, a trusted friend who is part of their everyday life (Aaker 1997; Fournier 1998). 3. 1. 4 Perceived Value When consumers engage in brand relationships and process brand communication, they begin to perceive the value (also often referred as benefits) related to the brand. Customers who have greater expected benefits and utility from an ongoing relationship are more likely to commit to 12 it (Anderson and Narus 1990). Perceived value can be divided into functional, economical, emotional, social/self-expressive, and epistemic (Aaker 1996, 95-101; Bhat and Reddy 1998; de Chernatony 1993; Long and Schiffman 2000; Sheth et al. 1991; Zeithaml 1988). Functional value describes overall satisfaction with the functional quality of a product or service (e. g. a car is reliable). Economic value may be constant (e. g. regular customer’s low price), immediate (e. g. sales offers) or possible (collecting points, competitions). Emotional value includes feelings like enjoyment and entertainment. Social and self-expressive value relates to our relationships with others (e. g. brand as a status symbol, belonging to a community). Epistemic value relates to experienced curiosity, novelty or knowledge gained and learning. Customers may also perceive conditional value that exists only within a specific situation (Holbrook 1994). Due to the unspecific nature of conditional value it is treated as a mediator (situational factors) in our model. In a more holistic view, customer-perceived value can be regarded as a ratio between perceived benefits and perceived sacrifice (Monroe 1991), or in another words â€Å"the consumer’s overall assessment of the utility of a product based on a perception of what is received and what is given. † (Zeithaml 1988). Thus, from the communication perspective marketer’s active contacting decreases perceived sacrifice by lowering customer’s effort to search for information. In addition to traditional products, brands, and services, researchers have also successfully used the previously discussed dimensions of perceived value to assess consumers’ perceptions of technology-based self-services, like mobile services (Heinonen and Strandvik 2003: Heinonen 2004; Pura 2005). Hence, we believe that these value categories should also be effective in capturing the effects of DMC on customer loyalty. 3. 1. 5 Commitment In our model, the perceived value of brand communication relates to commitment, and they both relate to customer loyalty. This is consistent with research indicating that commitment mediates the relationship between brand satisfaction and loyalty (Fullerton 2005). Commitment is defined as a desire to maintain a relationship (Moorman et al. 1992; Morgan and Hunt 1994). Generally, commitment limits the impact of negative brand-related information and enhances 13 the impact of brand-related positive information, which leads customers to resist switching inducements (Ahluwalia et al. 2001). Commitment can be divided into affective and continuance commitment (Gundlach et al. 1995; Fullerton 2003). Affective commitment is based on emotional attachments: identification, shared values, belongingness, dedication, friendship, and similarity (Price and Arnould 1999; Pritchard et al. 1999). Trust is also suggested to be closely related to affective commitment (Morgan and Hunt 1994). Therefore, in our model we include trust as an antecedent of loyalty (see e. g. Reichheld and Schefter 2000) under the affective commitment component. It has been found that affective commitment is positively related to both repurchase intentions and advocacy intentions for a brand (Fullerton 2005). Continuance commitment is based on switching costs, investments, dependence, and lack of choices (Gundlach et al. 1995; Meyer et al. 1990). For example, service agreements can be perceived as continuance commitment. Continuance commitment has been found to be positively but weakly related to repurchase intentions and negatively related to advocacy intentions for a brand (Fullerton 2005). It is worth noting that also a concept of (cognitive) lock-in is also related to continuance commitment, defined as â€Å"Consumers’ decreased propensity to search and switch after an initial investment. † (Johnson et al. 2003; Zauberman 2003). This term seems to be sometimes used as a synonym for continuance commitment, and describes consumer behavior on the Internet. The number of contacts can also prevent the customer from having interest or time to look for competitive offerings, be the contacts initiated by marketer’s active contacting or customer’s active browsing. Customer-initiated contacts are a way to signal commitment, and there is evidence that frequency of communication is positively associated with a partner’s commitment (Anderson and Narus 1990). Interactive media changes the way in which commitment is formed. It has been found that on the Internet consumer lock-in is greater than in a traditional retail environment (Brynjolfsson and Smith 2000). For example, when customers learn how to use a web store and personalize their own menus, continuance commitment is created. Also, the Internet can be very effective in creating affective commitment, one example being virtual communities like Habbo Hotel (www. habbohotel. com). Habbo Hotel is a virtual hotel where you can hang out with your 14 friends or meet new people: walk, dance, eat, drink and chat in the cafes, restaurants, swimming pools and game rooms. You can even decorate and furnish your own room. The following propositions conclude the previous discussion. The effect of regular brand communication on customer loyalty can be stated as: Proposition 1a: Regular brand communication has positive effects on behavioral customer loyalty. Proposition 1b: Regular brand communication has positive effects on attitudinal customer loyalty. Proposition 1c: Positive effects of regular brand communication on both behavioral and attitudinal customer loyalty increase up to a certain level until the communication starts to wearout. After this point it either has no effect, or has a negative effect due to irritation. 3. 1. 6 Content While so far we have discussed how frequency affects customer loyalty, also the content of communication has an effect on how customers perceive and value the information they receive, or retrieve, and how this affects their relationship with the brand and the marketer. It has been argued that communication rather than persuasion is the foundation of customerfocused marketing efforts (Duncan and Moriarty 1998). A basic way to classify the content of brand communication would be to divide it into promotional and relational communication. While promotional communication like price promotions and persuasive letters are intended to quickly generate sales and other responses, relational communication focuses on enhancing customer’s attitudes and loyalty in the long term by providing content such as information about new products, usage tips, or invitations to events. Relational brand communication can be perceived by the recipient as a service rather than as advertisement or offer, which might allow increased frequency before the messages start to wearout. This is also suggested by Tellis (1997), who states that complex messages, including soft-sell or emotional appeals and novel messages, may be able to sustain and benefit from higher ad frequency. In their research on consumer packaged goods, Mela et al. (1997) found that in the long run price promotions (temporary price reduction, feature, or coupon) make consumers more price 15 sensitive in both loyal and nonloyal segments. In contrast, non-price-oriented advertising (e. g. brand building) makes consumers less price sensitive in both segments, the impact being stronger on the nonloyal consumers. Hence, advertising increases the relative strength of brand preference, making consumers more loyal. Similarly, Jedidi et al. (1999) found that in the long term, advertising has a positive effect on brand equity while promotions have a negative effect. Furthermore, their results suggest that frequent promotions of brands may also make it unnecessary for consumers to switch brands because it becomes increasingly likely that a deal on the favored brand will be forthcoming. However, frequent promotions are often unprofitable for a company and may not enhance attitudinal customer loyalty, making customers more likely to switch brands if they get better price deals elsewhere. Parallel implications on the relation of the content of brand communication and customer loyalty can be drawn from more recent studies concerning digital channels. Extensive survey data from more than 2,000 e-tail sites shows that price-sensitive customers may be the least loyal, whereas customer service support is the main factor that attracts repeat buying (Reibstein 2002). Moreover, studies of email marketing have found that nonloyal customers mainly want promotional offers, but loyal customers also appreciate other content, like news, invitations to events, and usage tips (Martin et al. 2003; Merisavo and Raulas 2004). Newsletters with mainly non-price promotion content had better impact on the brand loyalty of the loyal customers than on the nonloyal. Overall, these results imply that the content of brand communication should be tailored to different customer segments in order to further enhance customer loyalty. Based on the discussion of the content of brand communication we expect that: Proposition 2a: Relational brand communication has positive effects on behavioral customer loyalty. Proposition 2b: Relational brand communication has positive effects on attitudinal customer loyalty. Proposition 2c: Promotional brand communication has positive effects on behavioral customer loyalty, which can be negated if competitors make better offers. Proposition 2d: Promotional brand communication has negative effects on attitudinal customer loyalty. 16 3. 2 Personalized Brand Communication Personalization is expected to be an element that can work to boost customer loyalty by creating more personal, interesting and relevant brand communication, and better service. In the literature different terms are used when talking about personalization (e. g. customization, targeting, segmentation, profiling, and one-to-one marketing). Kotler’s (1997) idea of personalization is that the ultimate level of segmentation leads to segment of one, customized marketing, or one-to-one marketing. Peppers and Rogers (1993) define one-to-one marketing quite simply: treating different customers differently. The goal is to differentiate customers individually and cust