Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid solution Essay Example for Free

Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid solution Essay Experiments: 1. Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid solution 2. Determination of the concentration of commercial colourless vinegar Standardization of sodium hydroxide by ethanedioic acid Objective: To determine the molarity of sodium hydroxide. As the molarity of the sodium hydroxide is unknown, in order to standardize it, the concentration of the acid has to be known. Result: Titration Trial 1 2 3 4 Initial burette reading() 18. 33 8. 05 7. 52 8. 21. Final burette reading() 45. 48 36. 25 35. 79 36. 82 Volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 27. 15(rejected) 28. 20 28. 27 28. 61 Average volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 28. 36 Treatment for result: Molarity of the standard ethanedioic acid solution Mass of ethanedioic acid= 0. 8g Molar mass of ethanedioic acid= 2? (12+16+16+1) +2? (1+1+16) = 126 Number of mole of ethanedioic acid= 6. 35? Molarity of the ethanedioic acid= = 0. 025M Â  Molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution. Number of mole of 25. 0 ethanedioic acid= 6. 35 10 = 6. 35? Number of mole of sodium hydroxide = 6. 35 2 = 1. 27? Molarity of sodium hydroxide= 1. 27? = 0. 045M Determination of the concentration of commercial colourless vinegar Objective: The concentration of ethanoic acid in different brands of vinegar would be determined. As the compositions of vinegar in different brands are different, the highest concentration of ethanoic acid in the vinegar was said to be the best to buy. Result: Titration Trial 1 2 3 4 Initial burette reading() 5. 99 9. 28 8. 50 7. 05 Final burette reading() 20. 32 26. 22 25. 17 23. 86 Volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 14. 33(rejected) 16. 94 16. 67 16. 80 Average volume of sodium hydroxide solution used() 16. 81 Treatment for result: * Concentration of ethanoic acid in the commercial vinegar(ShanTou) Number of mole of sodium hydroxide = 0. 045? 0. 01681 = 7. 56? ?Number of mole of ethanoic acid = 7. 56?

Market Failure With Graphical Analysis Economics Essay

Market Failure With Graphical Analysis Economics Essay As Roral Coase indicated, the question to be decided is: Is the value of fish lost greater or less than the product which contamination of the stream makes possible. Thus, it is understand that concept of social efficiency is difficult to achieve because of unexpected costs. Government intervention to the economy can be justified when market fails to achieve social efficiency (Webster, 2003). Social efficiency occurs when marginal social cost (MSC) is equal to marginal social benefit (MSB) (Sloman and Garratt, 2011). The market demand curve reflects MSB from an economic activity and supply curve reflects MSC of it (Begg, 2009). Instead, markets do not always attain an efficient output because of under-production and over-production of some goods and services. Inefficient level of production causes deadweight lost which represents a decrease in total surplus and this is market failure (Parkins, 2012). Under these conditions, Pareto efficiency cannot exist. According to Verhoef (1997, p. 3) Pareto efficiency is, a feasible situation, usually in terms of the allocation of goods and production factors, for which exists no other feasible situation that is weakly preferred by all agents. So, he concludes that markets mostly fail to achieve Pareto efficiency. In the literature, the major causes of market failure are (Parkins, 2012; Sloman and Garratt; 2010; Bregg, 2009; Blink and Dorton, 2007; McAleese, 2004, Morey, 2012): Externalities Public goods Merit and De-merit goods Market power Factor Immobility Imperfect information The major causes of market failure with graphical analysis are discussed as follows. Externalities: Externalities are economic side effects and can be either positive or negative (Grant, 2003). Externalities are costs/benefits that are imposed on people who are not directly involved in economic activities (Henderson, 2005). Positive externalities (external benefits) have beneficial effects while negative externalities (external costs) have harmful effects on third parties (Grant, 2003). Externalities cause market failure since decision makers generally consider only marginal private cost (MPC) and marginal private benefit (MPB) (Grant, 2003). There are four main types of externalities (Sloman and Garratt, 2010): -Negative externalities of production -Positive externalities of production -Negative externalities of consumption -Positive externalities of consumption Production and consumption externalities cause differences between private and social costs of production and also private and social benefits of consumption (Margetts, 2012). Social cost equals to sum of private costs and external costs while social benefits equals to sum of private benefits and external benefits (Sloman and Garratt, 2010; Parkins, 2012). Negative externalities of production: Negative externalities of production occur when the production process imposes external costs on third-parties (Grant, 2003). It exists when MSC of production exceeds MPC of the firm. For example, the production of cars can cause air, noise and visual pollution. Pollution can be harmful for people who are living around the factory. In Figure 1, MSC of production is above MPC. If a factory is interested in profit maximisation, it produces at Q. It is not producing at Q1, where MSC is equal to MSB, so it is market failure. There is an over-production (Q-Q1) that means misallocation of societys resources (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Moreover, the overproduction (Q-Q1) causes welfare loss as well. Positive Externalities of Production: Positive externalities of production occur when the production or provision of some goods or services creates external benefits for third parties (Blink and Dorton, 2007). In this case, MSC of production is less than MPC. For example, if a car factory provides training to its employees, this raises costs of the factory but increases the productivity of workforce. If these employees leave that firm and start working in another firm, this creates benefits for new employers since they do not have to spend money on the training of their new employees. It is figured out in the following graph. In the figure 2, MPC is above MSC. So the car factory produces at Q which is less than the social optimum output level at Q1. Between Q1 and Q, there is a potential welfare gain which is shown by the highlighted area. If the output level increases from Q to Q1, welfare would be gained. In this example, there is underproduction or provision of beneficial output that means misallocation of societys resources and it causes market failure (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Negative externality of consumption: Negative externality of consumption occurs when the consumption of some goods and services impose external costs on third parties (Grant, 2003). It exists when MPB is greater than MSB. For example, the consumption of cigarettes has harmful effects on others who are not smoking, called passive smokers. This may cause cancer. In figure 3, MPB is above MSB. This means that consumers are trying to maximise their private benefits without considering the externalities they create. There is over consumption of cigarettes, so it causes welfare loss to the society. This causes market failure. The welfare loss occurs when MSC is not equal to MSB (Grant, 2003). Positive externalities of consumption: Positive externalities of consumption occur when the consumption of some goods and services impose external benefits on third parties (Grant, 2003). It exists when MPB is less than MSB. For example, consumption of health care provides benefits for the whole society. If a person is healthy he wont transmit diseases to others and healthy people will perform better. In figure 4, MSB is above MPB. The consumption of health services is at Q1 with price P1. On the other hand, the socially optimum output level is at Q2 where MSC is equal to MSB. If consumption of health care services increase, welfare would be gained. Public goods: The two distinct characteristics of public goods are; non-rival and non-excludable (Tataw, 2011; Griffiths and Wall, 2007; McAleese, 2004; Borooah, 2003; Parkin, 2012). Thus, public goods can only be provided by the government and some private firms that are subsidised by the government (Sloman and Garratt, 2010). Lighting and pavement can be given as an example of non-rival goods (Dewar, 2010). Consumption of non-rival goods by one person does not prevent others using/consuming those goods (Grant, 2003). Lighthouses and national defence are examples of non-excludable goods (Johnson-Lans, 2004). Once they are made available for someone, they become available for everyone (Folland et al., 2007; Henderson, 2005). This will give rise to free rider problem. Free riders are the people who receive the benefits from goods and services without paying for them. So public goods are like externality (Begg, 2009). Based on the above conditions, Tataw (2011, p. ?) concludes that, market failures arise because only a small quantity of public goods will be provided inefficiently in private markets. Merit Goods: Merit goods create positive externalities when they are consumed (Margretts, 2012). This means that MSB exceeds MPB. This is presented in figure 5. The benefits of merit goods are not fully esteemed by typical consumers (Tataw, 2011). This causes under consumption and under provision of merit goods. In figure 5, consumption of merit goods are at Q, that is below the socially optimum output level, so this means misallocation of societys resources and cause market failure. De-merit goods: Contrary to merit goods, consumption of de-merit goods have harmful effects on third parties and create negative externalities (Grant, 2003). Cigarettes and alcohol are examples of de-merit goods (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Consumption of alcohol may make the drinkers feel good but they can create disturbance in public places. This is indicated below. In figure 6, MPB exceeds MSB. The consumption of alcohol is at Q1 which is above the socially optimum output level, so there is over consumption. This creates welfare loss. Market Power: In an imperfectly competitive market, firms are not able to produce at socially optimum output level (Sloman and Garratt, 2010) and it causes market failure. For example, in a monopolistic market, there is a single producer who can achieve profit maximisation in a short-run (Margetts, 2012). In this situation, producers produce where MC=MR, and this is reflected in figure 7. In figure 7, monopolistic producer produces at Q1 which is profit maximisation level and it also represents privately optimum output level. Also, Q1 is below the socially optimum output level which is at Q2. In this scenario, benefits obtained by producers are much more than what consumers receive. This is represented by the deadweight loss and highlighted within the figure. Factor Immobility: Two main types of factor immobility are; geographical immobility and occupational immobility (Blink and Dorton, 2007). Immobility of resources, such as labour and capital, might result in misallocation of resources, an increase in unemployment level and productively inefficiency in the market (Grant, 2003). This is reflected in igure 8 with a PPFs curve. In figure 8, points on the curve represent the productive efficient levels. The point E represents the productively inefficient point (Grant, 2003). Imperfect Information: Buyers and sellers may have inefficient choices if they are not fully informed about costs and benefits of consumption or production of goods and services (Grant, 2003; McAlleese, 2004). Imperfect information makes it difficult for economic decision makers for equate marginal benefit and marginal cost, so this causes market failure (Blink and Dorton, 2007). For example, the contribution of the merit goods to consumers is much more than what they think (Grant, 2003). This is partly because of imperfect information (Riley, 2012). In figure 9, there is under consumption of merit goods. This prevents social efficiency and causes market failure. As a conclusion, todays environmental problems and monopolistic markets encourage government interventions and a need for a central authority to coordinate the market mechanism inevitable, after almost eighty years that was first introduced by Keynesian economics school of taught.

John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding -- Reality John Lock

John Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding In John Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding", he makes a distinction between the sorts of ideas we can conceive of in the perception of objects. Locke separates these perceptions into primary and secondary qualities. Regardless of any criticism of such a distinction, it is a necessary one in that, without it, perception would be a haphazard affair. To illustrate this, an examination of Locke's definition of primary and secondary qualities is necessary. Starting from common-sense notions of perception, namely that there must be something in order to perceive something, Locke continues by arguing that ideas in the mind correspond to qualities in the object being perceived. Locke states that: Whatsoever the mind perceives in itself, or is in the immediate object of perception, thought or understanding, that I call idea; and the power to produce any idea in our mind, I call quality of the subject wherein that power is. 11 Primary qualities are those aspects of an object that are in and of the object being perceived. Anything that must actually be in an object in order for any object to exist is a primary quality. These, Locke stated, are inseparable from an object. Qualities such as mass, solidity, and extension in three dimensions are all primary qualities. To say that an object has mass and solidity but no shape or extension in three dimensions is inconceivable if not outright ridiculous. So, primary qualities are necessary for an object to be considered an object. If something does not have primary qualities, then it cannot be considered an object but must be considered to be something else. Secondary qualities, according to Locke,... ...ere God creates substance and everything associated with it. Conversely, without a belief in God, Berkeley's position cannot be put forth, as there would be nothing to create the perceptions, and Locke's position becomes more likely. And if your faith leads you to the conclusion that there is no God, then you must put your faith in a material world for there is no other consistent world of which you could conceive. Endnotes 1 Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. The Empiricists. (New York: DoubleDay, 1974) p.24 [Back] 2 Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. The Empiricists. (New York: DoubleDay, 1974) p.25 [Back] 3 Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. The Empiricists. (New York: DoubleDay, 1974) p.166 [Back] 4 Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. The Empiricists. (New York: DoubleDay, 1974) p.168 [Back] 5 Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. The Empiricists. (New York: DoubleDay, 1974) p.168 [Back]

Anorexia and Bulimia Essay -- Causes of Bulimia Nervosa, Anorexia

Bulimia Nervosa I sat there staring in the mirror filled with disgust at the figure on the other end. I thought â€Å" another day, another day living and thinking of nothing else but the way that I look naked, the way I look with clothes on, and the way other people look at me.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I was 17 years old when I began to have the premature symptoms of Bulimia Nervosa. I was a cheerleader for a national competition squad, and was worried about being able to tumble to my full potential because of the extra weight that I was carrying. But more importantly I was uncomfortable with the way I felt with myself. I had a low self-esteem and was constantly worried about what others thought of me.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I tried many different strategies to lose weight. From starving myself to exercising constantly, nothing was working. I was desperate and wanted nothing else but to lose weight. As I became more and more worried about my weight the more depressed I became. With the onset of depression I started to eat even more. I ate, one day, to the point that I was sick, and felt miserable about myself, so I threw up. Afterward I felt great about myself. I had found some way hat I could control my weight, which in hand was my life. It became a lifeline for me; I was addicted to the feeling of throwing up once a day. The feeling of being hungry was for me happiness; I was disgusted and felt huge physically when I wasn’t hungry. I went from a solid size 12 to a solid size 6 in less than two months. I lost 20 pounds, and still was not happy with myself. I was suprised that no one questioned me or asked how I did it. All I heard was how great I looked.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"1%-3% of adolescent and young adult females develop bulimia,† (Hales, p.250). And the statistics seem to be rising. One theory of why this is happening is that bulimia is influenced by fashion pressures to be thin and the social fixation on the idea of thinness is beauty. This fixation is the same, says John Matthews the author of Eating Disorders, as those suffering from anerexia. There is also an increase in numbers of bulimics due to the social expectance of the disease and the urgency of the disease to be treated.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The awarness of what Bulimia Nervosa is and the symptoms of the disease are becoming more common place in our society.... ...an Psychiatric Association, is 90% female, more likely white in race, and is from a more industrialized country, for example the United States, Canada, Europe, or Australia.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Individuals with Bulimia Nervosa have been compared to those who suffer from alcoholism. We both encounter the day to day battles to stay healthy and not relapse. We both learn to talk about our problem to others whether it is a group such as AA, or in my case with my family. An individual with Bulimia Nervosa needs support just as an individual with alcoholism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The help that is out there is enormous for any individual suffering with the battle of an eating disorder. The problem is not the availability of help; it is we as a society. We need to become more comfortable talking about the symptoms of the individual with the eating disorder, and the different ways to over come the disorder. One solution that helped my treatment was the understanding of exercise, and a healthy diet. Sometimes in our busy life’s we forget to teach our children about healthy living, however we have the expectation that they will be perfect on the inside and the outside.

Animal Testing Essay -- Animal Testing

Animal Testing   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Using Animals for testing is wrong and should be banned. They should be entitled to the rights we have. Every day humans are using defenseless animals for cruel and most often useless tests. The animals cannot fight for themselves therefore we must. There should be stronger laws to protect them from laboratory experiments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Although private companies run most labs, experiments are often conducted by public organizations. The U.S. government, the Army and Air Force in particular, has designed and conducted many animal experiments. The experiments were engineered so that many animals would suffer and die without any certainty that this suffering and death would save a single life, or benefit humans in any way at all. An example of this is some tens of thousands of Beagles experimented with. In Albuquerque, New Mexico, 64 Beagles were forced to inhale radioactive Strontium 90 as part of a â€Å"Fission Product Inhalation Program† which has been paid for by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. In this experiment 26 dogs died. One of the deaths occurred during an epileptic seizure; another from brain hemorrhage. Other dogs, before death, became feverish and anemic, lost their appetites, and had hemorrhages. The experimenters compared their results to those experiments conducted at th e University of Utah and the Argonne National Laboratory in which beagles were injected with Strontium 90. They concluded that the...

Analysis of the Investment Opportunities in Amp and Qbe Essay

This study investigates the opportunities to make an investment decision between AMP limited and QBE Insurance Group Limited. In order to find that, this study has done ratio analysis, risk and return assessment, SWOT analysis and analysis regarding the influence of the external environment. Both AMP limited and QBE Insurance Group Limited are in the insurance industry whereas QBE provides general insurance service and AMP has two business units which includes AMP Financial Services and AMP Capital Investors. Considering profitability analysis, systematic risk and cost control policy, investing in AMP Limited is found out to be a better choice than investing in QBE Insurance Group Limited, even though EPS and P/E ratio contrary the choice. This study has also done SWOT analysis on the insurance industry and external environment analysis which may affect the investment decision. Therefore, after considering all these analysis, this study concludes that investing in AMP limited decision would be worthwhile than investing in QBE Insurance Group Limited. 1. Introduction The purpose of the report is to make a conclusive investment decision between AMP and QBE companies based on educated analysis which includes ratio analysis, risk and return assessment, SWOT analysis and impact of external environment on the AMP and QBE. Therefore, company’s financial performance, future profitability opportunity associated with risk can be speculated prior to the investment decision. 2. Company profile As one of the largest companies in Australia, QBE Insurance Group Limited provides general insurance services not only in Australia, but also in all over the world. And for AMP limited, it is an Australian financial corporation which focuses on insurance services to the customers in Australia and New Zealand. 3. Risk Assessment 3.1 Current ratio For the financial year ended 31st Dec 2010, AMP has a current ratio of 9.99 which is larger than the QBE figure 1.30. Since current ratio is a measure of short-term solvency of companies, the ratio indicates that AMP is more liquid than QBE in 2010 financial year. In a historical view from Table 1 in appendix, the current ratios of AMP were constantly larger than QBE figures in the past 10 year. 3.2 Debt/equity ratio From the balance sheets provided by Annual Report Online Database (n.d.), the D/E ratios can be calculated as 29.36 for AMP and 3.08 for QBE in 2010 financial year. The enormous difference between D/E ratios of the chosen firms indicates that AMP has bigger debt components in its capital structure than QBE does. The D/E ratios of AMP and QBE for years between 2006 and 2010 shows AMP shareholders are bearing more risks than QBE shareholders because of the heavy portion of debts the company has to generate value for each dollar in equity. 3.3 Return on equity In 2010 financial year, AMP gives us a ROE of 24.45%, compared with the ROE of QBE which is 12.30%. The ROE figures indicate that each dollar in AMP’s equity could generate more profit than that in QBE’s. From information provided in Fin Analysis Database (n.d.) and illustrated in Table 2 in appendix, we can analyze the historical trends of the two companies. From 2005 the ROE ratio of AMP had a continuously growth above QBE and reach the peak of 52.43% in 2007. After that period, both AMP and QBE had slight contraction in ROE, however the ROE of AMP maintained larger than QBE till now. From the ratio analysis above, we can briefly conclude that the AMP has more risks in long-term solvency than QBE; however, it is much more profitable than QBE for each dollar invested in its equity. Considering analysis above, investing in AMP is better over QBE from the profitability point of view. 3.4 Systematic risk analysis 3.4.1 AMP Provided by Fin Analysis Database (n.d.), the beta coefficient of AMP is 1.73. The beta figure suggests that the systematic risk of AMP is greater than the average risk in the market. Based on coupon rate of 5-year and 10-year government bonds as well as the market risk premium for 2010 provided by Pablo Femandez (n.d.), the expected return of investing in AMP is 14.78% for 5 years and 15.78% for 10 years. 3.4.2 QBE From Fin Analysis Database (n.d.), the beta coefficient of QBE is 0.50, which is smaller than an average risky asset and the beta of insurance industry. The expected return of investing in QBE is calculated as 7.65% for 5 years and 8.65% for 10 years. As illustrated above, the systematic risk of AMP is larger than QBE, this result in a greater expected return on investment in AMP for a five to ten years period. 4. Return analysis 4.1 Earnings Per Share As we can see from the historical data from Fin Analysis (n.d.), as at 30/12/2010, the EPS of QBE was $121.73, obviously higher than that of AMP which was $36.90. For the last ten years, the EPS of QBE was generally indicated a trend of stable growth from 2001 to 2007 and peaked at 2007 of nearly $225.67, however, from 2008 to 2010, the EPS started to decrease, especially decreased from $196.41 in 2009 to $121.73 in 2010. As for AMP, on the other hand, there was a significant change of EPS in 2003, during which time the EPS decreased from -$78.73 to -$399.86, afterwards it also had ups and downs, but the trend was quite smooth with an EPS around $40.00. Therefore, considering the trend in the last ten years, OBE has a higher EPS with reasonable fluctuation. 4.2 Net Profit Margin Net profit margin is commonly used to evaluate the effectiveness of the company’s ability of converting revenue into actual profit. During the last ten years, both AMP and QBE experienced a generally increasing trend in the Net Profit Margin except for the year 2008. The average net profit margin of QBE and AMP was around 5% and 10% respectively, which indicates that AMP might have a more effective cost control policy compared to QBE. 4.3 P/E ratio (PER) As we can see from the database of Financial analysis (n.d.) which showed in Table 3, from 2003, the PER trend of both QBE and AMP were quite smooth without much fluctuations. Also QBE generated a slightly higher PER than AMP, which indicates that QBE yields higher returns and is more price sensitive than AMP. 5. SWOT analysis 5.1 Strengths: The life and the non-life insurance section in Australia are certainly considered as an attractive place where to do business, because both segments are expecting to grow over the future period more at a rate of 7% per annum compared to the growth rate for the industry as a whole. 5.2 Weaknesses: Non-life insurance premiums are barely developing because this segment is fully grown in mature market, so it is difficult to invest and benefit to investors. There is also a lack of reinsurance capacity in the local market and the local market of investments is exposed to the requirements of the global market. 5.3 Opportunities: There is a strong linkage between life insurance products and superannuation funds which mean the growth of the superannuation funds will benefit to life insurance in Australia. Voluntary motor insurance and non-life insurance are growing quite dramatically in Australia, so there is still a possibility of investments to these products. 5.4 Threats: The investment risks in connection with the popular insurance products are placed with the clients, not with the insurers. That is, fluctuation in global financial markets may easily have a negative impact on life premiums. 6. Impact of external environment of insurance industry The world economy is not stable in recent several months. That means the growth of world economy cannot be reasonably guaranteed. It is due to the fact that two of the most important and largest economic bodies in the world cannot seek appropriate solutions to their own economic problems. As the largest economy in the world, American economy has been in difficult situation and struggling since the world financial crisis. The US economic statistic data have revealed that the recovery of the America’s economy will probably be a long process. For example the unemployment level of the last six months in America is between 9 to 10 percent. It should be mentioned that the US average unemployment rate is 5.7 percent. Even though the data indicates that the US manufacturing industry rebounded last month, the probability of recession is still high. The economy of European Union (EU) is also experiencing difficulties. The European debt crisis has been spreading from Greece to Spain and Italy. It is an unambiguous fact that Greece is insolvent. Even though Spain and Italy is not insolvent, they have liquidity problems. The suddenly deteriorated finance in Europe has resulted in the loss of confidence of investors. The insurance industry has been growing steadily since global financial crisis. But the natural disasters such as the flood and hurricane in Queensland have important influence on insurance industry .More specifically, QBE suffered from these catastrophes such as storms in Queensland and Victoria. Besides, the 12 tornadoes that happened in America and Christchurch’s fourth major earthquake in New Zealand also affected QBE’s profit. But these natural disasters failed to decrease QBE’s profit. Instead, it was the contraction in insurance margins led to the shares of QBE to decrease. 7. Conclusion In conclusion, AMP limited is better choice than QBE Insurance Group Limited to invest due to high profitability opportunity, considering systematic risk and cost control policy although EPS and P/E ratio indicates in favor of QBE. According to returns, AMP is slightly better than QBE in terms of investment decision. Therefore, it would be highly recommended to invest 1 million dollar in AMP limited rather than QBE Insurance Group Limited.

Traditional and Alternative Health Care Practice

Traditional and Alternative Health Care Practice The tropical climate of the Philippines has made it possible for thousands of plants and vegetation to thrive more in lush forests. Many herbal plants have been tapped because of its efficacy against common ailments and the practice of the use of herbal plants as medicines have stretched as far as during pre-Spanish era, and are still being practiced until these modern times. The Department of Health (DOH) advocated the use of herbal plants as what is considered as form of primary health care and as an answer to the increasing cost of synthetic drugs in the market.These 10 DOH-approved herbal plants are found within the country and have been proven to treat common ailments, according to the thorough research done by National Science Development Board, and other government and private agencies and persons. Its importance in providing better health care was not overlooked. In 1992, The DOH, through former Health Secretary and Senator Jua n M. Flavier made a health program by virtue of Administrative Order No. 12. This program was known as the Traditional Medicine Program, with its main function of promoting and advocating the use of traditional medicine across the country.In 1994, the drafting of a traditional medicine law was initiated in order to institutionalize the program. Then by 1997, President Fidel V. Ramos saw the promising potential of traditional medicines both in the health of Filipinos and the economy and timely approved the Republic Act 8423, also known as the Traditional and Alternative Medicine Act (TAMA) of 1997. This law then, gave rise to the government owned and controlled corporation known as the Philippine Institute of Traditional and Alternative Health Care (PITAHC).It is attached to the DOH in delivering safe, effective and affordable proper traditional and alternative (TAHC) health care products and services to the people. The 10 DOH-approved herbal plants are listed below, along with their uses, preparations and names in different places/dialects within the country. 1. Lagundi (Vitex negundo) * Kamalan (Tag. ) * Limo-limo (Ilk. ) * Tugas (Ceb. ) * Dabtan (If. ) * Molave aso (Sul. ) * 5 leaveschaste tree (English) Lagundi is a shrub type of plant growing wild in vacant lots and waste land. Matured branches are planted. The flowers are blue and bell-shaped.The small fruits turn black when ripe. It is better to collect the leaves when are in bloom. Uses: * For asthma, cough and fever – boil raw fruits or leaves in 2 glasses of water for15 minutes until the water left in only 1 glass (decoction). Strain. Leaves should be chopped and the following dosages of the decoction are given according to age group: Dried leavesFresh leaves Adult4 tbsp. 6tbsp. 7-12 yrs. 2 tbsp. 3 tbsp. 2-6 yrs. 1 tbsp. 1 ? tbsp. * For dysentery, colds and pain in any part of the body as in influenza – boil a handful of leaves and flowers in water to produce a glass full of decoction an d drink it three times a day. For skin diseases (dermatitis, scabies ulcer, eczema) and wounds – prepare a decoction from handful of leaves. Wash and clean the skin/wound with the decoction. * For headache – crush leaves and may be applied on the forehead. * For rheumatism, sprain and contusions, insect bites – pound the leaves and apply on affected part. * For aromatic bath for sick patients – prepare leaf decoction for use in sick and newly delivered patients. 2. Yerba (Hierba) Buena (Mentha cordifelia) * Herba Buena (most dialects) * Hierba/Yerba Buena (Spanish) * Hilbas (Dav. , Ley. ) * Opiz Ablebana (If. ) * Malipuen (Als. ) Peppermint, mint (English) Yerba (Hierba) Buena is a small multi-branching aromatic herb. The leaves are small, elliptical and with toothed margin. The stem creeps to the ground and develops roots. It may be also propagated through cuttings. Uses: * For pain in different parts of the body as headache, stomach ache – boil c hopped leaves in 2 glasses of water for 15 minutes. Cool and strain. Dried leavesFresh leves Adult6 tbsp. 4 tbsp. 7-12 yrs.? tbsp. of adult dose Divide decoction into two parts and drink one part every three hours. * For rheumatism, arthiritis and headache – crush the fresh leaves and squeeze sap.Massage sap on painful parts with eucalyptus. * For cough and cold (serves as expectorant) – get about 10 fresh leaves and soak in a glass of hot water. Drink as tea. * For swollen gums – steep 6 g. of fresh plant in a glass of boiling water for 30 minutes. Use solution as gargle. * For toothache – cut fresh plant and squeeze sap. Soak a piece to cotton in the sap and insert this in aching tooth cavity. Mouth should be rinsed by gargling salt solution before inserting the cotton dipped with plant sap. To prepare salt solution: add 5 g. of table salt to one glass of water. For menstrual and gas pain – soak a handful of leaves in a glass of boiling water. Dr ink infusion. It induces menstrual flow and sweating. * For nausea and fainting – crush leaves and apply at nostrils of patients. * For insect bites – may be prepared in two ways: 1. Crush leaves and apply juice on affected part. 2. Pound leaves until paste-like. Rub this on affected part. * For pruritis – boil plant alone or with eucalyptus in water. Uses decoction as a wash on affected area. 3. Sambong (Blumea balsamifera) * Alibhon Alimon (Vis. ) * Kambihon, Lakdanbulan (Vis. ) * Ayohan, Bulaklak, Ga buen, Kaliban (Tag. * Gintin-gintin, Haliban/Camphor (English) Sambong is a plant that reaches 1 ? to 3 meters in height with rough hairy leaves. Young plants around mother plant may be separated when they have three or more leaves. Uses: * For anti-edema, diuretic, and anti-urolithiasis – boil chopped leaves in a glass of water for 15 minutes until one glassful remains. Cool and strain. Dried leavesFresh leaves Adult4 tbsp. 6 tbsp. 7-12 yrs.? tbsp. of adu lt does Divide decoction into 3 parts. Drink one part 3 times a day. Note: Sambong is not a medicine for kidney infection. 4. Tsaang Gubat (Carmona retusa) Alibungog (Vis. ) * Kalabonog, Maragued (Ilk. ) * Kalimunog, Taglokot, Talibunog, Tsa (Tag. ) * Malatadian (Gad. ) Tsaang- Gubat is a shrub with a small, shiny nice-looking leaves that grows in wild uncultivated areas and forests. Mature stems are used for planting. Uses: * For diarrhea – boil the following amount of chopped leaves in 2 glasses of water for 15 minutes or until amount of water goes down to 1 glass. Cool and strain. Dried leavesFresh leaves Adult10 tbsp. 12 tbsp. 7-12 yrs. 5 tbsp. 6 tbsp. 2-6 yrs. 2 ? tbsp. 3 tbsp. Divide decoction into 4 parts. Let patient drink 1 part every 3 hours. For stomach ache – wash leaves and chop. Boil chopped leaves in 1 glass of water for 15 minutes. Cool and filter/strain. Dried leavesFresh leaves Adult2 tbsp. 3 tbsp. 7-12 yrs. 1 tbsp. 1 ? tbsp. 5. Niyug-Niyogan (Quisqua lis indica L. ) * Balitadham, Pnones, Pinio, Bono (Bis. ) * Bawe-bawe (Pamp. ) * Kasumbal, Talolong (Bik. ) * Tartarau (Ilk. ) * Burma creeper, Chinese honey suckle (English) Niyug-Niyogan is a vine which bears tiny fruits and grows wild in backyards. The seed must come from mature, dried but newly opened fruits. It is propagated through stem cuttings about 20 cm. in height. Uses: For anti-helmintic purposes – used to expel roundworms which cause ascariasis. The seeds are taken 2 hours after supper. If no worms are expelled, the doses may be repeated after one week. Adults8-10 seeds 7-12 yrs. 6-7 seeds 6-8 yrs. 5-6 seeds 4-5 yrs. 4-5 seeds Caution: Not to be given to children below four years old. 6. Bayabas (Psidium guajava L. ) * Guyabas, Kalimbahin, Tayabas (Tag. ) * Bagabas (Ig. ) * Bayabo (Ibm. ) * Bayawas (Bik. , Pang. ) * Biabas (Sul. ) * Guyabas (Ilk. ) * Guava (English) Bayabas is a tree about 4-5 meters high with tiny white flowers with round or oval fruits that are eaten raw.It is propagated through seeds. Uses: * For washing wounds – may be used twice a day * For diarrhea – may be taken 3-4 days twice a day * For relief of toothache and as a gargle – warm decoction is used for gargle. Freshly pounded leaves are used for toothache. Guava leaves are to be washed well and chopped. Boil for 15 minutes at low fire. Do not cover pot. Cool and strain before use. 7. Akapulco (Cassia alata L. ) * Bayabas-bayabasan, Kapurko, Kantada, Katandang Aso, Pakagonkon, Sonting (Tag. ) * Andadasi, Andadasi-a dakdakol, Andadasi-bugbugtong (Ilk. ) * Adadasi (Ting. ) * Ancharasi (Ig. * Andalan (Sul. ) * Bayabasin, Bikas-bikas (Bik. , Tag. , Bis. ) * Kasitas (bik. , Bis. ) * Snting, Palo china (Bis. ) * Pakayomkom Kastila (Pamp. ) * Ringworm bush or shrub (English) Uses: * For anti-fungal purposes (Tinea flava, ring worm, athlete’s foot and scabies) – fresh, mature leaves are pounded. Apply to the affected part 1-2 times a day. 8. Ulasimang Bato (Peperonia pellucida) * Pansit-pansitan (Tag. ) Ulasimang Bato is a weed with heart-shaped leaves that grow in shady parts of the garden and yard. Uses: * For lowering uric acid (rheumatism and gout) Preparation: Wash the leaves well.One and a half cup leaves are boiled in two glassfuls of water over low fire. Do not cover pot. Cool and strain. Divide into three parts and drink each part three times a day after meals. It may also be eaten as salad. Wash the leaves well. Prepare one and a half cups of leaves (not closely packed). Divide into three parts and take as salad three times a day. 9. Bawang (Allium sativum) * Ajos (Spanish, Bis. ) * Garlic (English) Uses: * For lowering of cholesterol levels in blood; for hypertension and toothache Preparation: may be fried, roasted, soaked in vinegar for 30 minutes, or blanched in boiled water for 5 minutes.Take two pieces three times a day after meals. Caution: Take on full stomach to prevent stomach and intestinal ulcers. * For toothache – pound a small piece and apply to affected part. 10. Ampalaya (Mamordica charantia) * Amargoso (Spanish, Ilonggo) * Margoso, Ampalaya (Tag. ) * Apalia (Pamp. ) * Agape (Ibn. ) * Apapet (Itn. ) * Palia (Bis. , Ban. , If. , Ilk. ) * Pubia (Sub. ) * Suligum (Sul. ) * Balsam Apple, Balsam Pear, Bitter Gourd (English) Uses: * For those with Diabetes Mellitus (Mild non-insulin dependent) Preparation: Gather and wash young leaves very well. Chop.Boil 6 tablespoons of chopped leaves in two glassful of water for 15 minutes under slow fire. Do not cover pot. Cool and strain. Take one third cup 3 times a day after meals. Note: Young leaves may be blanched or steamed and eaten 1/2 glassful 2 times a day. REMINDERS ON THE USE OF HERBAL MEDICINE 1. Avoid the use of insecticides as these may leave poison on plants. This may be hazardous to consume and may cause poisoning that may lead to death. 2. In the preparation of herbal medicine, use a clay pot and remove cover while boiling at low heat. 3. Use only the part of the plant being advocated.Use of the parts not indicated may affect the potency of the herbal medicine, making it less effective or not effective at all when consumed. 4. Follow accurate dose of suggested preparation. Proper amount and timing of dosage is critical in achieving the expected results. Not following those can be detrimental to one’s health and recovery. 5. Use only one kind of herbal plant for each type of symptoms or sickness. 6. Stop giving the herbal medication in case untoward reaction such as allergy occurs. 7. If signs and symptoms are not relieved after 2 or 3 doses of herbal medication, consult a doctor.